PDF Summary:The Sports Gene, by David Epstein
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In his bestselling book The Sports Gene, David Epstein uses science to support the claim that our genes play a determining role in our success in sports. He opens by refuting the idea that enough practice is a virtual guarantee of success. He then spends the rest of the book citing research on genes and performance, taking the reader around the world and over evolutionary time, all to explain why the book’s title is an impossibility. There is no single “sports gene,” just as there is no “perfect athlete.” There are, however, fortuitous pairings of the right genes and the right circumstances in the right sports that together create the remarkable and diverse feats of athleticism that we see on the elite stage.
Our guide reorganizes the wealth of content in The Sports Gene by theme to help clarify Epstein’s major arguments. To provide more grounding, our commentary includes supplemental research as well as explanations of scientific concepts in the fields of genetics and evolution.
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When we say we have the “gene” for something, we are referring to alleles. (Epstein uses the term variant rather than allele.) Alleles are different versions of a gene that lead to differences in the way that gene is expressed. Even though they represent well under 1% of our DNA, different alleles account for the huge diversity we see in the human race. For example, we all have the ABO gene that determines our blood type. But there are different versions of the gene (alleles) that result in different blood types among people. Instead of saying that an athlete has the “right gene” for their sport, it is more accurate to say that they have the right version of a gene, or allele, for their sport.
Genes and Our Response to Training
Epstein uses studies highlighting people’s varying responses to exercise programs to illustrate the power of genes in shaping athletic careers. He discusses two studies that followed groups of people participating in cardiovascular fitness and strength-building exercise programs. The results showed that people’s genetic differences cause them to respond differently to training. Results from the cardiovascular exercise program showed that:
- The aerobic capacity of 15% of participants did not improve at all, while the aerobic capacity of another 15% improved by 50% or more. The other 70% of participants fell somewhere between these values.
- Half of the participants’ base level of fitness and their response to training could be statistically determined by studying their parents.
As Epstein explains, these results make it clear that there is a strong genetic component to how people’s bodies respond to cardiovascular training. The researchers were able to find 21 alleles (versions of a gene) that accounted for the diversity in responses to cardio training. Results from the strength training program were similar:
- 17 participants added up to 50% more muscle mass.
- 32 participants gained 25% more muscle mass
- 17 participants had no muscle gains despite identical training
Along with these results, researchers again found that those who responded the most to the training program had pre-existing genetic differences from those who did not. Epstein explains that the participants who gained 50% more muscle had more active IFG-IEa, MGF, and Myogenin genes than those who did not respond to exercise.
Epstein suggests that elite athletes likely fall into the category of people whose bodies elicit a greater response to exercise and whose genes give them a naturally more athletic starting point.
There Are Benefits to Exercise Outside of Sports Performance
There is still reason to exercise even for people who do not see performance gains despite training. Epstein notes improvements in blood pressure, cholesterol, and insulin sensitivity as benefits of aerobic training outside of sports. There are also cognitive, social, and emotional benefits to exercise for athletes and nonathletes alike. An article from the University of California, Berkely outlines several benefits of exercise that have less to do with performance on the field and more to do with overall well-being. They include:
Greater happiness and overall satisfaction
Less loneliness and a lower risk of depression
A greater sense of purpose and more feelings of love, gratitude, and hope
As the article explains, this is because exercise has a powerful effect on our brains, even if we don’t see any gains in our muscles.
Single Genes Can Have a Large Impact on the Field
While researchers have only been able to identify groups of genes that influence some elements of our physiology (as seen in the examples above), the relationship between some specific genes and athletic performance is more apparent. Epstein highlights some of these genes in the book.
ACTN3 Gene: Our ratio of fast- to slow-twitch muscle fibers can determine our success in some sports. Epstein discusses two versions of the ACTN3 gene, which codes for a protein found in fast-twitch muscle fibers: the “R variant” and the “X” variant. While scientists do not know how this happens, there is a strong correlation between the R variant and sprinting speed. Tests on athletes from around the world have revealed that the X genotype is almost nowhere to be found in elite sprinters.
The SRY Gene: Epstein uses the performance difference between men and women to emphasize his assertion that genes matter in sports. Epstein explains that the Sex Determining Region Y (SRY) gene accounts for most sexual variation between men and women. It is on the Y chromosome (women have two X chromosomes). The SRY gene causes the formation of testicles, which release the testosterone that produces male characteristics in developing fetuses. Epstein credits this gene and the associated higher levels of testosterone in males as the reason male athletes are (on average) bigger, faster, and stronger than female athletes.
Epigenetics: Our environment acts on our genes
An athlete’s performance is a function of both her genes and her environment. Simply knowing the gene (or genes) that codes for a particular trait is just one piece of the puzzle in demystifying human genetics. Our internal and external environments impact the way our genetic code is expressed in the real world.
Chemical compounds and proteins within our cells attach to our genetic code and control the way our DNA is read (and thus which proteins are produced). These ‘DNA attachments’ are referred to as our epigenome. Elements of our epigenome are inherited from our parents, and some are acquired (and change) throughout our lifetime. Much of our epigenome is determined after birth. Our environment and lifestyle can change the expression of our genes. This is often called epigenetics. (The term “epigenome” falls under the epigenetics term.) A well-known example of epigenetics in daily life is the risk of skin cancer from our cells being damaged by UV radiation.
As this article from the National Library of Medicine notes, even if researchers are able to pin down the exact genes for certain athletic traits, unraveling which traits in sports have a purely genetic origin is an impossible task. Athletes will always be the product of genes and environment, or as Epstein calls it, nature and nurture.
Theme 3: The Environment Plays a Role in Sports Performance
Our environment has an impact on our genes. Since our genes play such a large role in our sports performance, Epstein argues that you cannot understand what makes an athlete successful without the context of their environment. He illustrates this point using Kenyan distance runners.
The dominance of Kenyan athletes in distance running events is one of the best-known stereotypes in sports. As Epstein explains, this well of talent mainly comes from one specific tribe within Kenya. Athletes from the Kalenjin tribe represent only 12% of the Kenyan population but 75% of its elite runners. At the time of The Sports Gene’s writing, only 17 men in the United States had ever run a marathon faster than two hours and 10 minutes. But 32 men from the Kalenjin tribe accomplished the same feat in October of 2011.
Latitude and Limb Length
Epstein’s research suggests that the environment in which Kalenjin runners’ ancestors evolved helps to explain the tribe’s exceptional running ability. The Kalenjin tribe has what anthropologists call a “Nilotic” body type, characterized by long, thin limbs. Evidence from animal and human populations shows that limbs generally become longer and thinner as you move closer to the equator. Epstein explains that this is likely due to the higher temperatures in many low-latitude environments since long limbs create a greater surface area for cooling. During long-distance running events, becoming overheated will not only decrease performance but can be dangerous.
Evolution by Natural Selection Develops Human Traits
Traits that are an advantage on the sports field may also be helpful in survival situations. Evolution by natural selection, the accepted theory of evolution in modern times, posits that traits that boost an organism’s survival and (more importantly) reproductive success will become more common in a population over time.
Advantageous traits are specific to an organism’s environment. For example, while having long, thin limbs may confer a survival advantage near the equator, Epstein notes that populations that evolved in the arctic tend to have short legs (short legs conserve heat just as long legs allow it to dissipate). The traits that help certain athletes succeed in specific sports may have helped their ancestors better survive their natural environments.
Altitude and Aerobic Capacity
Another environmental factor that likely enhances the Kalenjin’s running ability is altitude. Ancestors of the Kalenjin tribe evolved close to sea level but migrated to a higher elevation in recent evolutionary history. Today the Kalenjin live at altitude in the Rift Valley. Epstein presents research suggesting that the body’s initial response to a move to altitude is an increase in the production of hemoglobin.
Hemoglobin is the molecule that carries oxygen in our blood. Producing more hemoglobin is the body’s way of capitalizing on every molecule of available oxygen in the thinner air at altitude and is the reason athletes use altitude training to maximize aerobic capacity. The combination of sea-level ancestry and living and training in the altitude “sweet spot” for hemoglobin production (between 6,000 and 9,000 feet) likely contributes to the Kalenjin tribe’s running prowess.
Sherpas as Superathletes
Epstein reinforces the idea that no single factor, genetic or environmental, can account for an athlete’s success by pointing out that other populations living at altitude are not producing Olympic endurance athletes. Nepal has competed at the Summer Olympics since 1964 but has yet to take home a medal. If simply living or training at altitude could make someone a great endurance athlete, we would expect to see marathoners from Nepal running alongside Kenyan runners.
Natives of Nepal who work on Mount Everest as sherpas are widely regarded as superathletes in their own right. Not only have many of them made the ascent up Everest many times (a feat considered by many as a pinnacle of athletic achievement), but they do so while caring for groups of other climbers and carrying the extra weight of climbing gear on their backs. If mountaineering were to become an Olympic sport, Nepal would surely be raking in the gold medals, and Sherpas would be highlighted as athletes with a genetic makeup perfectly suited to their sport.
Theme 4: Our Culture Plays a Role in Sports Performance
An athlete’s genes, practice, and environment all play an important role in her performance. But none of these explains why athletes from certain cultures choose to specialize in specific sporting events. Epstein argues that an athlete’s culture and socioeconomic status can help explain why sport-specific talent (such as the Kenyan marathon phenomenon) tends to cluster in certain areas. He focuses on Kenyan distance running and Jamaican sprinting to highlight this point.
Epstein highlights the following factors as reasons why so many Kenyans choose to pursue a running career:
- Poverty: The average income in Kenya is $800 per year. The prize money from winning a large marathon would be a fortune for the average Kenyan runner. Even winning a local or regional race could mean more money than athletes would otherwise earn in a year.
- Inclusive training philosophy: Epstein describes an open training culture in the Kalenjin population. He notes that elite athletes often train alongside aspiring runners, who will drop in on training sessions to see how they compare. Additionally, aspiring Kenyan runners are often young adults coming into the sport for the first time. In contrast to the push in US sports culture to begin training as early as possible (before it is “too late”), Epstein notes that Kenyan runners believe that if someone has the talent and puts in the work, age is not an obstacle.
- Early “training”: One study showed that 81% of elite Kenyan runners were from low-income families and had to walk or run to school. This walking served as a form of early training and resulted in a 30% higher aerobic capacity than those who did not walk to school. The same research showed that the top runners had to walk six miles, sometimes more, to school every day.
Coupling these factors with physiology exceptionally well-suited to distance running creates a well-rounded view of why there are so many successful Kalenjin runners.
Kalenjin Runners and Exceptional Mental Toughness
An NPR article highlighting the success of Kalenjin runners offers an additional culturally-based explanation for why Kalenjin runners are so successful. The article proposes that in addition to physiological advantages, athletes from this tribe are conditioned to have an exceptionally high pain tolerance. According to the article, learning to tolerate pain is an important part of growing up in the Kalenjin tribe. The article describes pain ceremonies as a rite of passage where teenagers prove their mental toughness to the rest of the tribe. High pain tolerance is a clear advantage in a sport such as the marathon, where athletes push themselves through discomfort for hours.
Taking culture into account can paint a more well-rounded picture of why Jamaican athletes have such a strong presence in sprinting events.
- As Epstein describes it, youth track is to Jamaica what football is to the United States. High school championship track meets are even more popular than professional sporting events in Jamaica.
- All children in Jamaica are pushed to try sprinting from a young age. Young children who show potential are recruited to high schools with competitive track teams, and high school students are even sponsored by local retailers. That such an interest is taken in runners at such a young age is a testament to the cultural importance of sprinting events in Jamaica, and explains why so many athletes choose track (and sprinting in particular) over other sports.
Talented American Sprinters Choose Other Sports
According to a Gallup poll, the most popular sports (measured by viewership) in the United States are football, basketball, baseball, and soccer, in that order. Less than 0.5% of people chose track and field as their favorite sport to watch. This helps to explain why young American athletes would choose to focus on the four sports listed above instead of focusing on their speed on the track. In fact, in The Sports Gene, Epstein notes that some people worry that the growing popularity of basketball in Jamaica may draw promising athletes away from the track.
Applying The Sports Gene to Our Lives
In the Afterword of The Sports Gene, Epstein invites us to explore our unique genome by trying new sports and experiencing personal growth and discovery through a training program. As his research findings and stories show, we never know what we may be good at unless we try!
(Shortform note: These invitations convey a tone of optimism and possibility. Our takeaway from The Sports Gene should not be that we don’t have the “right” genes to excel in sports. Instead, the book invites us to explore how our own genes, environment, culture, and training interact. Perhaps the most important takeaway from The Sports Gene is that we should be patient with ourselves and others along our sports journeys. If we are open to trying new things, we will likely find a sport that feels like a “natural” fit. While we may not end up in the Olympics, understanding that our bodies are programmed to have their own strengths and weaknesses can help us identify a sport that we find personally rewarding.)
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PDF Summary Shortform Introduction
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Intellectual Context
The Sports Gene is a research-based book. It includes discussions of race and sex from a scientific rather than a cultural perspective. Epstein acknowledges that some of the topics covered may be socially uncomfortable. He even notes that some researchers refrain from sharing their findings when they illuminate a racial divide. However, Epstein maintains that it is a disservice to both science and society to avoid discussing research findings for the sake of social comfort.
The Book’s Impact
The Sports Gene contributes to the perennial nature vs. nurture debate by counterbalancing a widespread cultural belief that nurture (practice) can always trump nature. It stands as a challenge to assertions made about the power of practice in Malcolm Gladwell’s best-selling book Outliers. As a testament to the strength of Epstein's arguments, even Gladwell called The Sports Gene “fascinating” and “educational.”
The Book’s Strengths and Weaknesses
Critical Reception
The Sports Gene has received widespread acclaim and, as Epstein notes, was purchased by both President Barack...
PDF Summary Part 1.1: Practice and Performance | Popular Ideas About Practice Are Flawed
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Believing that people end up in the social standing that they “deserve” can make people behave more selfishly, make them less likely to critique their behavior, and can even be used to justify discrimination (in part because it conveniently explains away present circumstances). In contrast, acknowledging the importance of luck can make people behave more generously.
Since meritocratic views are so prevalent in popular culture, it makes sense that they are also popular in sports. We love the story of the gritty underdog making it to the top. But failure to recognize differences in innate ability (genes) can lead people to believe that they are simply not working hard enough when they don’t meet their goals. The reality may be that no amount of hard work will propel them past athletes whose natural abilities are better suited to their sport. It is easy to see how meritocracy could be a particularly detrimental idea in youth sports as children are forming their beliefs about themselves and building their self-esteem.
The “10,000 Hours” Study and the Promise of Mastery
**The phrase “the 10,000-hour rule” has become a popular way to express the idea that enough...
PDF Summary Part 1.2: Practice Is Not an Equalizer
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When viewed from a different perspective, however, The Matthew Effect can also be used to support the 10,000-hour rule. In that case, the logic could look like this: Those young athletes who showed more promise at the start of their athletic careers, in gym class, for instance, were recruited onto teams younger and received more attention from coaches. By the start of high school, their head start amounted to hundreds of more and or better hours of practice than their peers with a “lower” starting point.
The Matthew Effect is also a common concern in early literacy. Educators stress the importance of building literacy early in the hopes of avoiding gaps in academic performance from delayed reading skills. The idea is that the students who have early access to and an early affinity for reading will learn to read younger. Since they are able and (presumably) enjoy reading, they will read more often and build their literacy skills further. By the time students are reading for content knowledge in school (as opposed to for enjoyment), the early readers will have a clear academic advantage.
Thorndike’s assertion...
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Learn more about our summaries →PDF Summary Part 1.3: The Real Power of Practice
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The players made the most accurate predictions overall.
The difference in frequency of players’ correct predictions versus correct predictions from the other groups was greatest when the video was stopped before the shooter’s hands released the ball.
These results support Epstein’s discussion of practice building mental models. The player’s mental model of what a successful shot should look like allowed them to make more accurate predictions. Even more intriguing: only the professional players showed increased firing of neurons associated with hand muscles (specifically the muscles in their pinkie fingers). This response was greatest when they watched missed shots, suggesting that the players were unconsciously trying to correct the technique they were watching on the screen.
Practice Allows You to React Quickly
Epstein explains that the reaction times of elite athletes are about the same as the rest of the population. But at the elite level, most sports are played fast. In a sense, elite athletes can predict the future when it comes to their sport because they can read the field well enough to anticipate what is coming next. **The more experience...
PDF Summary Part 2.1: Body Type and Performance
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When we say we have the “gene” for something, we are really referring to alleles. Alleles are different versions of a gene that lead to differences in the way that gene is expressed. Even though they account for well under one percent of our DNA, different alleles account for the huge diversity we see in the human race. For example, we all have the ABO gene, which determines our blood type, but different versions of the gene (alleles) result in different blood types between people.
What we can see and observe about each other; our physical traits, our behavior, and our development is called our phenotype (this includes things like blood type, hormone levels, etc). Our phenotype is produced by the combination of our genes and our environment. When we discuss the huge diversity among athletes, we are talking about different phenotypes. (Check out Shortform’s summary of The Selfish Gene for a more in-depth discussion about how our genes influence everything about us, from our hair color to our aggressive or altruistic behaviors.)
The Most Useful Physical Traits by Sport
Epstein notes that athletes...
PDF Summary Part 2.2: Less Obvious Traits and Performance
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Epstein suggests that the general decline in hitters’ statistics around the age of 29 may in part be because visual acuity begins to decline around that same age.
Depth Perception and Contrast Sensitivity
In addition to literal “off the charts” visual acuity, Epstein adds that measures of baseball players’ depth-perception were also far better than average. Fifty-eight percent of MLB players had “excellent” depth perception, compared to 18 percent of the general population. The same trends held true when Olympic softball players were tested. Olympic archers had visual acuity comparable to baseball and softball players, but their depth perception was not as good. Epstein suggests that this is because archers are aiming for a flat, immobile target.
Olympic athletes who have to track a moving ball through the air (baseball and softball players, soccer players, and volleyball players) were all found to have better than average contrast sensitivity. This makes sense as keeping track of the ball is an integral part of the game.
(Shortform note: Advances in eye care, including contact lenses, Lasik surgery, and glasses, may provide some leveling of the playing...
PDF Summary Part 3: Sports Is a Magnet for “Extreme” Body Types
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Decathletes have to be powerful enough to throw a shot put, but not so massive (an advantage in shot put) that they cannot race in the 1,500 meters. While data on the morphology of elite decathletes and triathletes compared to corresponding specialists is difficult to find, the results of the 2021 Olympic decathlon illustrate this compromise.
Damian Warner won the 2021 Olympic decathlon and set an Olympic record for the event in the process. He is 6 feet 1 inch and 183 pounds. In the shot put, Warner’s best throw was 14.8m. The winner in the shot put event was Ryan Crouser, whose best throw was 23.3m (also an Olympic record). Crouser is 6 feet 7 inches tall and roughly 320 pounds. Every one of the [top...
PDF Summary Part 4: Different Genes and Different Training Responses
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*Molecular biology is moving at a rapid pace, and this idea is quickly being shown to be an oversimplification both of what constitutes a “gene” and of the flow of information from genes to proteins. Here is an article from Nature about how the very concept of a “gene” has become less fixed as knowledge advances.
The Human Genome Project
Epstein notes that most of our traits are not produced by a single gene but by the combination of many genes and our environment. To unravel which talents in sports are a product of genes, training, or circumstances, is an impossible task. This is partly why scientists and sports researchers are often hesitant to share ideas and findings that place genes at the forefront of outcomes. To suggest that our potential for success in sports is predetermined runs counter to our cultural values of hard work and determination. It can also lead into socially and culturally problematic territory as certain genetic traits are often distributed along geographic and racial lines.
Since human beings are so complex and sports so diverse, **no single genetic trait can be said to determine outcomes in...
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PDF Summary Part 5: Specific Genes and Their Impact on the Field
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The lack of a scientific explanation for why the XX variant is virtually absent in elite sprinters has not stopped for-profit genetic testing companies from selling genetic tests for ACTN3 gene variants to interested athletes and parents. As Epstein points out, since we do not know why some athletes are naturally fast, these tests can only really serve to add further evidence to the fact that most people with the XX genotype will not become elite sprinters; a fact that most people can ascertain without genetic testing.
Heterozygosity: Getting Different Versions of a Gene From Our Parents
It is possible for a parent who possesses an athletically advantageous version of a gene to not pass this advantage on to their children. Inherited genes from our parents are a product of chance. All of the cells in our body (except for sex cells) are called diploid cells. We inherit one of our father’s versions of a gene and one of our mother’s versions of the same gene.
Since we have two versions of each gene, two letters are often used to describe a person’s genotype when discussing a particular trait. The two letters (or an uppercase and lowercase letter) refer to the...
PDF Summary Part 6: Genetic Mutations in Sports—Helpful and Deadly
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A Beneficial Mutation in Cross-Country Skiing
Epstein recounts a trip he took to Finland to interview famous cross-country skier Eero Antero Mäntyranta, who won seven Olympic medals (three gold) from 1960 to 1968 (Eero passed away in 2013). His achievements included a decisive win in the 15km race at the 1964 winter Olympics, with 40 seconds separating him and the second-place finisher (this is the greatest margin of victory in this Olympic event ever). Epstein describes Eero’s dedication to his sport, with long hours of practice during the dark Scandinavian winters. However, Eero also had a genetic mutation that may have conferred an athletic advantage.
Eero had a mutation in his erythropoietin (EPO) receptor gene, a gene that codes for a molecule involved in producing red blood cells. The mutation results in an overproduction of red blood cells (Eero had up to 65% more red blood cells than other men) and very high levels of hemoglobin (the molecule on red blood cells that carries oxygen). A high volume of red blood cells is an advantage in sports, as it indicates a greater capacity to carry oxygen to hard-working muscles.
Epstein notes that Eero...
PDF Summary Part 7: Insight From Animal Athletes
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- There has been one famous human example of a baby with two mutated copies of the GDF-8 gene. He was nicknamed “superbaby” because of his lack of myostatin and extra muscle. His mother, a professional sprinter, was the only human adult on record as having the mutation.
Artificial Selection
When breeders purposefully select for desirable traits, such as extra muscle and extra speed, they are practicing artificial selection. Artificial selection mirrors the mechanism of evolution by natural selection, except that humans act as the driving force rather than the environment.
In evolution by natural selection, individuals with genetic traits that help them survive and reproduce will pass their genes to the next generation. Over the course of many generations, the traits that help individuals survive (and reproduce) in their specific environment will become more common. In artificial selection, humans act as the environment by choosing the traits they want and selectively breeding for them. By intentionally pairing two...
PDF Summary Part 8: Sex and Performance
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The reality is that many female world record holders would not even qualify to compete in the same Olympic events against men. And some of the top female athletes in their sport can be bested by high school boys. Statistically, those women, of whom there are many, who can outperform the average man in sports are the exception. Epstein cites innate physiological differences between men and women as the reason women are unlikely to surpass men in most sports. We will look at some of these differences next.
Women Best Men in Other Measures of Strength
Research has shown that from birth to death, women are ‘tougher’ than men in ways that science has yet to explain. Even at birth female babies have higher survival rates than males. As adults, women better survive 12 of the 15 leading causes of death and are older than men at the onset of common diseases such as cardiovascular disease and hypertension. Women also survive longer than men. In 2017, 42 out of 43 supercentenarians (people who live past 110) were women. Women also survive infections better than...
PDF Summary Part 9: Genes and the Story of Human Migration
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Equity in Genetics Research Would Further Our Understanding of Genes and Sports
Understanding how genes impact athletic performance or any other trait requires a well-rounded sample. A 2020 article in Nature discusses the underrepresentation of people with African Ancestry in genetics research. Although African people represent the majority of the human population’s genetic diversity, the article notes that most research on genetics has focused on European populations. This lack of equity in research not only hinders scientific knowledge but further exacerbates inequities in medical research and health care.
The article notes that while there has been a recent push to increase equity in genetics research, people with European ancestry are overrepresented in research on polygenic risk scores (which can help identify an individual's risk of certain diseases) by a factor of 460%. This means that the results of research on diseases are not as applicable to non-European populations, leading to fewer reliable diagnostic tools for non-white patients.
The article also notes that insight into a...
PDF Summary Part 10: Genes and Evolutionary Adaptations
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The other way our skin allows us to lose heat is through evaporative cooling (sweating). During intense exercise, our muscles produce a large amount of heat that our body needs to release. When we sweat, the energy that we perceive as heat is transferred to the water molecules on our skin. This energy causes the water molecules to evaporate, carrying away the energy (heat) from our bodies. This process happens continuously while we exercise so that we do not overheat. The larger the surface area of our skin, the greater the potential for evaporation and heat loss.
The adaptation of maximizing surface area is especially important for distance events such as the marathon, where runners are exerting themselves for hours at a time.
Latitude and Kenyan Running Dominance
Populations from the Nile Valley in Africa evolved in hot low-latitude environments and tend to have long, thin legs. Anthropologists refer to this as a “Nilotic” body type for populations from the Nile Valley. **A Nilotic body type may help to explain a piece of why Kenyan...
PDF Summary Part 11: Society and Performance
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Reason #1: As Epstein describes it, youth track is to Jamaica what football is to the United States. Epstein describes the Jamaican running event CHAMPS (the national high school track and field championships) as an event akin to the American Super Bowl. One hundred high schools compete over four days, with a stadium full of fans as well as talent scouts from American colleges. The event is even more popular than professional sports in Jamaica.
Championship track meets can certainly draw large crowds in the United States, but they do not carry the excitement, fan base, and potential for celebrity found in important football or basketball games. Epstein notes that there are likely many talented young athletes in the United States who could be very successful in track and field but chose to focus on more popular sports instead. (Another example of nature and nurture, these athletes may have the nature for sprinting but chose football based on nurture.)
(Shortform note: According to a Gallup poll, [the most popular sports (measured by viewership) in the United States are football, basketball, baseball, and soccer, in that...