PDF Summary:The Evolution of Everything, by Matt Ridley

We often view the emergence of order, structures, and complexity as the result of conscious design or centralized planning. But, according to The Evolution of Everything by Matt Ridley, a far more common and powerful process is evolution—the spontaneous and gradual emergence of order through incremental, decentralized change driven by selection forces.

In this book summary, Ridley reveals how evolutionary processes shape the natural world, human psychology and behavior, social dynamics, and technological progress. The world around us forms not from top-down design but from bottom-up, uncoordinated actions—Ridley describes language, law, money, morality, technology, and even the internet as outcomes of evolutionary processes, not central control.

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The idea of a theoretical unbiased witness, as described by Smith, evaluates the moral aspect of our behavior. Our internal compass steers us toward actions that would earn the approval of a fair-minded arbiter. Smith saw morality, like language, as a complex, ordered, but unintended outcome of human interactions. Smith's comprehension of ethics, while acknowledging a higher power, scarcely accommodated the idea of a deity directly influencing events. Morality, he argued, is not a product of religious instruction but rather emerges from unseen forces that guide us in the direction of a common moral structure, which originates from our innate inclination to live together in harmony. Ethical guidelines are not dictated from above; rather, they arise naturally.

The emergence of foundational evolutionary elements facilitated the decline in violent behavior and the rise of values typically linked with the middle class.

Ridley points out that a notable instance of morality emerging on its own is the sustained reduction of global violence. Ridley examines the historical reduction in different types of violence, drawing on the perspectives offered by Steven Pinker in his work "The Better Angels of Our Nature." Throughout the recorded history of human events, there have been remarkably few casualties from global conflicts. Since the medieval period, Western countries have experienced a decrease in murder rates by 99%. Disciplinary practices that were widely accepted in the past are now condemned for their lack of humanity. Harming animals is now deemed unacceptable and has been pushed to the fringes of permissible behavior. This long trend toward increased tolerance, empathy, and self-control, argues Ridley, was not orchestrated from above but rather emerged from an "invisible hand" process very similar to the spontaneous development of Adam Smith's moral systems.

Ridley underscores the importance of trade and the consolidation of governmental power as crucial factors in the gradual move towards a less violent civilization, taking cues from the studies undertaken by the sociologist Norbert Elias. As trade expanded, people increasingly viewed others as partners in commerce rather than as potential rivals. The fundamental tenets underlying commerce, which include mutual advantage, trust, and collaboration among individuals who are not acquainted, have lessened the need for hostile actions. The rise of centralized powers with the sole authority to enforce legal systems signified a shift away from the chaotic and widespread lawlessness characteristic of feudal times, fostering the development of self-regulation and peaceful conduct as key tenets of society. Civilized behavior arises not through deliberate orchestration or top-down design, but rather from the gradual development of societal norms and traditions.

Cultural progress, such as the development of language and legal systems, arises from spontaneous, decentralized actions rather than orchestrated efforts.

The parallels between the development of languages and the process of biological evolution are remarkably striking.

Ridley underscores the robustness of cultural evolution, particularly when examining the progression of language. Languages, shaped by human creativity, evolve progressively and naturally, similar to biological species, without direction from any central authority. The emergence of new varieties is marked by incremental changes that culminate in their evolution. Language develops organically, free from the influence of any regulatory entities that might prescribe rules of grammar or lexicon. New linguistic terms and colloquial expressions emerge naturally instead of being dictated by official mandates. He cites studies by Mark Pagel, indicating that in the same way diversity in biology flourishes nearer to the equatorial region, there is a corresponding increase in the diversity of languages. Tropical regions, with their patchwork of diverse conditions, nurture a plethora of languages, each formed by the unique aspects of its local environment and a heightened acceptance of infrequent occurrences.

Ridley also underscores the ineffectiveness of structured language instruction, highlighting that children naturally grasp their native language's intricacies through immersion, without formal teaching. Language continues to evolve, with changes in vocabulary, meanings, and pronunciations occurring regularly, even as linguistic authorities attempt to enforce grammatical standards from above. Gaining proficiency in a new language is often more successful through direct immersion and exposure rather than through structured lessons that emphasize grammar rules. Languages evolve naturally, rather than through the edicts of those in power.

The development of common law occurred through the setting of precedents, not through centralized planning.

The legal framework known as the common law system, employed in the United Kingdom, the United States, and other countries with Anglo-Saxon heritage, exemplifies the gradual development of legal systems. Unlike the civil-law systems common across Continental Europe, which are primarily codified by governmental statutes, the common law evolved gradually through established precedents and judicial rulings. Judges have traditionally drawn from established customs and previous rulings to guide their decisions on new legal challenges, thus molding a legal system that evolves through the application of inductive reasoning to specific instances. Ridley underscores the common law's capacity for natural progression and its responsiveness to emerging circumstances without the need for frequent legislative amendments.

The evolution and refinement of common law transpire through the establishment of precedents and robust debates, highlighting the decentralized processes that contribute to the construction of a solid legal infrastructure, as opposed to being shaped by statutory mandates. Ridley demonstrates how the emergence of order and consistency within the common law is a result of countless independent decisions, thereby eliminating the need for centralized planning. He proposes that replacing the organic development of common law with rigid legal systems is likely to fall short, akin to the endeavor of synthesizing a rhinoceros in a laboratory setting from the ground up.

Human personality, intelligence, and sexuality have deep biological underpinnings

Personal variations stem from a combination of genetic factors and the surroundings in which one lives, rather than being dictated exclusively by the latter.

Ridley cites a psychologist who challenges the common assumption that parents shape their children's personalities. In her book, Harris examined studies on behavioral genetics and determined that the differences observed among siblings raised in the same household would not be as significant if the influence of parents had been the primary factor. Even if twins are separated at birth, they frequently demonstrate similar intelligence levels and personality characteristics, while children raised in the same household often show considerable variation in these qualities. Harris and Ridley's work indicates that the formation of personality is influenced not only by genetic factors but also by the social engagements children experience, particularly through interactions with their contemporaries, beyond their immediate family.

Ridley concurs with the perspective that while parents provide support and have a considerable impact on their child's well-being, they do not shape the personality traits of their offspring. This challenges the prevalent belief in numerous psychological research circles regarding the substantial impact that parental guidance has. Ridley posits that the distinct elements of a person's personality emerge from a complex interplay of genetic influences and social learning experiences that arise from the child's own development, rather than being deliberately imparted by parental guidance. The growing recognition of biological factors is seen positively because it frees children and their parents from accountability for outcomes that are largely beyond their control.

Our sexual behaviors and preferences are profoundly shaped by patterns that are deeply embedded in our evolutionary past.

Ridley highlights research suggesting that factors beyond the social realm play a role in molding our sexual preferences. Men across different societies tend to be drawn to women who are at the height of their reproductive potential and display indicators of strong well-being. Women generally prefer partners who exhibit maturity, ambition, and the capacity to provide, and who are approximately the same age as they are. Individuals who prefer partners more likely to produce strong offspring will see their lineage flourish, a trend that continues in modern behavior.

Ridley points out the striking consistency in the rate at which young men commit homicides against their peers across various societies, a statistic that greatly exceeds the instances of homicides committed by women against other women. He contends that attributing this persistent trend only to cultural influences does not sufficiently explain its widespread occurrence. A more likely explanation, he suggests, lies in our evolutionary past. In the evolutionary path of mammals and humans, the quest for mating chances has consistently propelled males to develop heightened aggressiveness, frequently resulting in their engagement in riskier behaviors. These evolved tendencies, while tempered by cultural norms, continue to shape human behavior today.

Context

• Adam Smith's concept of an unbiased witness in evaluating moral behavior involves imagining a hypothetical observer who impartially judges our actions. This theoretical observer helps individuals assess their behavior based on principles of fairness and societal norms. Smith believed that this internal moral compass guides individuals towards actions that would be deemed acceptable by a neutral, objective observer. The idea of the unbiased witness serves as a tool for individuals to reflect on their conduct and make decisions aligned with societal expectations and moral standards. Smith's concept emphasizes the role of self-regulation and social harmony in shaping ethical behavior.
• The concept of the "invisible hand" was introduced by Adam Smith to describe how individuals pursuing their self-interest can unintentionally benefit society as a whole. In the context of morality and reduction in violence, the "invisible hand" suggests that positive outcomes, like the development of ethical norms and a decrease in violent behavior, can emerge naturally from individual actions without central coordination. It implies that societal progress can occur organically through the cumulative effects of individual decisions and interactions, rather than through deliberate planning or external control. This idea highlights the idea that complex social phenomena can arise without explicit direction, guided by the unintended consequences of individual behaviors.
• The common law system, used in countries like the UK and the US, relies on judicial precedents and case law to make legal decisions. It evolves through the interpretation of past rulings by judges, emphasizing flexibility and adaptability. In contrast, civil-law systems, common in Continental Europe, are based on codified laws created by legislative bodies. They prioritize written statutes over judicial decisions in shaping legal principles.
• Language development parallels biological evolution in that languages evolve gradually and naturally, similar to how species evolve, without central direction. New linguistic variations emerge organically, influenced by local environments and cultural interactions. Just as diversity in biology thrives in varied conditions, linguistic diversity flourishes in regions with unique cultural influences. Language evolution is driven by creativity and usage, not by top-down regulation or formal instruction.
• Personal variations in traits like personality are shaped by a combination of genetic factors and environmental influences, not solely by upbringing. This means that while parents and family play a role, genetic predispositions and experiences outside the home also significantly impact how individuals develop. Studies have shown that even siblings raised in the same household can exhibit significant differences in traits like intelligence and personality due to these combined influences. Understanding this interplay helps explain why individuals within the same family can be so different from one another.
• Sexual behaviors and preferences are influenced by evolutionary patterns that have developed over time to enhance reproductive success. Men are generally attracted to traits in women that signal fertility and health, while women tend to seek qualities in men that suggest genetic fitness and the ability to provide for offspring. These preferences are rooted in evolutionary strategies aimed at maximizing the chances of successful reproduction and the survival of offspring. Understanding these evolutionary underpinnings can provide insights into the origins of certain behaviors and preferences related to mate selection.

The importance of spontaneous, decentralized actions is markedly different from the limitations imposed by centralized planning.

Technological innovation stems from the creative amalgamation of existing ideas.

Technological progress often happens simultaneously and seems inevitable.

Ridley challenges the idea that technological progress is driven by sudden, revolutionary discoveries made by solitary innovators. He contends that innovation should be seen as an evolutionary concept, with new technologies arising from a series of subtle, step-by-step transformations that occur as current concepts are merged in novel ways. The simultaneous emergence of identical innovations by various individuals within the same timeframe clearly illustrates this principle. Historical events unfolded at a critical moment when numerous ideas were ripe for discovery. According to Ridley, the advent of the telephone would have experienced a minor delay instead of being an event exclusively linked to a particular moment and individual.

The example of the development of the incandescent light, frequently credited to Thomas Edison, demonstrates this concept effectively. Edison's success in commercializing the light bulb was achieved through a series of incremental improvements and contributions from numerous other inventors. The development of calculus, which saw both Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz arriving at its formulation separately, resulted in a contentious debate over who was first. The uncovering of DNA's structure and the interpretation of genetic codes emerged from the collective efforts of various independent teams. Ridley proposes that the story of innovation is one of simultaneous occurrences.

Individuals in the market collaborate organically and jointly, leading to the creation of wealth.

The mistaken belief that government direction and coordination drive economic advancement is without basis.

Ridley argues that a thorough examination of the economic past provides robust backing for the success of bottom-up, emergent processes over the limitations linked with top-down, authoritative approaches. Attempts to impose economic prosperity through centralized control have consistently failed, he contends. When individuals are free to engage in commerce and concentrate on their unique abilities, economic growth thrives, allowing markets to evolve organically and wealth to accumulate without the need for deliberate planning. He cites the contrasting progressions of South Korea and Ghana. In the 1950s, individuals within these countries generally experienced similar levels of income. South Korea embraced a policy focused on expanding trade and reducing governmental intervention within the market, while Ghana received significant international aid, experienced governmental meddling, and followed expert advice. South Korea enjoys a considerably higher level of economic prosperity compared to Ghana.

Ridley argues that the history of developmental aid is replete with examples of good intentions unintentionally strengthening authoritarian regimes and hindering economic progress. He advocates for the idea that the forces of evolution propel economic advancement, emphasizing the importance of market dynamics, the essential nature of property rights, and the imperative of allowing individuals the freedom to determine their own economic destinies. Recognizing the subtle guidance of market dynamics in shaping economic activity offers benefits compared to the strict regulations of centralized planning.

Scotland and Canada attained a stable financial state without the need for centralized oversight.

Ridley depicts the evolution of money as another example of gradual advancement. The emergence of money was a gradual process driven by the needs of traders, not by edicts from authorities. He challenges the idea that centralized authority is essential for the successful management of currency, highlighting historical examples where monetary systems have operated quite effectively without centralized control. During the latter half of the 1700s, Birmingham, a key player within England's Industrial Revolution, experienced a marked shortage of small-denomination currency. The difficulty for employers to disburse salaries impeded trade. The Royal Mint, with its exclusive privileges, remained unresponsive. Entrepreneurial manufacturers created their own currency, which gained widespread acceptance and was even utilized for transactions across the far reaches of London.

The banking infrastructure in Scotland was notable for its policy of not imposing fees. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, Scotland experienced an increase in economic wealth, largely due to a system of banks that independently created their own currency, free from the oversight of a centralized power. The inherent competitiveness and the necessity for maintaining a strong reputation contributed to the notable endurance of this decentralized system. The financial entities network encountered a handful of small challenges that were effectively handled by the system itself. Even after establishing a central monetary authority, England continued to experience several disruptions within its financial system during that time. Ridley presents the Scottish example as evidence of a financial system's capacity for achieving stability and adaptability without the need for extensive centralized oversight.

Political and social changes often emerge organically from many individual actions, not from centralized design

The progression of moral values and societal outcomes is not significantly directed by governmental actions.

Ridley argues that societal progress is propelled by the cumulative efforts at the grassroots level, rather than by actions for which governments can take credit. He emphasizes that the decline in slavery, the decrease in racist sentiments, and the embrace of gay rights have mainly emerged due to a gradual change in the moral norms of society, rather than from the orders of influential figures. Social negotiations frequently resulted in transformations that appeared to be molded by an unseen influence, with governments typically reacting to these transformations instead of being the instigators.

He cites the British campaign that emerged in the early 1800s, emphasizing a period when championing free trade and limited government interference was seen as progressive. Prominent abolitionists, such as Richard Cobden, saw free markets and individual liberty as the best paths to achieving both peace and social justice. They viewed governmental interference as more of an obstacle than a facilitator of advancement. Ridley also suggests that our current perception of human rights has developed from a series of substantial changes originating internally within society. The evolution of these moral standards, which is often mistakenly thought to have begun in the twentieth century, actually represents an ongoing progression of ethical concepts that have their roots in the Enlightenment and extend even further back to the mid-17th century Leveller movement, where John Lilburne's passionate support for individual liberty marked a significant point in history.

The way politics and society evolve may reflect the natural and distributed growth that is typical of the internet.

Ridley views the internet as a quintessential example of the emergence of complexity and organization through natural evolutionary processes in the contemporary world. The structure of the network evolves independently, without being guided by a singular entity or shaped by the dictates of a specific creator or organization. The emergence was the result of the collective contributions of many individuals and organizations, not the guidance of any central authority. Matt Ridley argues that the internet's vibrant and inventive character stems from its lack of centralization. It challenges centralized control by nurturing the organic growth and widespread dissemination of new ideas and applications.

Matt Ridley regards the internet as a prime illustration of how political structures and wider social frameworks evolve. Matt Ridley suggests that the inherent inclination of the internet toward transparency and cooperative efforts could lead to a governance model that is more decentralized and participatory, diminishing reliance on traditional top-down frameworks and established power hubs. He cites Douglas Carswell's view that the growth of the internet is shifting power from traditional political frameworks, thus increasing individual involvement in democratic processes. He also underscores the rise of cryptocurrency, particularly bitcoin, as a potential element in reducing government dominance over monetary systems, bolstering economic stability through decentralized oversight, and pressuring governments to adequately perform their responsibilities to their citizens. Matt Ridley uses the internet to illustrate the superiority of decentralized coordination over centralized planning, offering a glimpse into a future where power is more widely distributed and innovation emerges naturally.

Context

• Matt Ridley argues that technological progress is more of an evolutionary process rather than a result of sudden breakthroughs by individual innovators. He emphasizes that new technologies often emerge through the gradual merging of existing ideas in novel ways. Ridley provides examples like the development of the incandescent light bulb and the formulation of calculus to illustrate how innovation is a collective and simultaneous occurrence rather than a product of isolated genius. He challenges the notion that innovation is driven solely by solitary inventors and highlights the importance of incremental improvements and collaborative efforts in technological advancements.
• South Korea and Ghana took different economic paths in the 1950s. South Korea focused on trade expansion and limited government intervention, leading to significant economic growth. In contrast, Ghana relied on international aid, faced government interference, and followed expert advice, resulting in a less prosperous economic outcome for the country. This comparison highlights the impact of economic policies on national development trajectories.
• The historical examples of monetary systems in Birmingham and Scotland highlight instances where decentralized currencies were successfully utilized outside of centralized control. In Birmingham during the Industrial Revolution, private manufacturers created their own currency to address a shortage, facilitating trade independently of the Royal Mint. In Scotland, a system of independent banks issued their own currency, leading to economic growth and stability without centralized oversight. These examples demonstrate how decentralized monetary systems can function effectively in fostering economic activity and stability.
• Societal progress and moral values often evolve from grassroots efforts rather than direct government actions. Changes in societal norms, like the decline of slavery or the acceptance of gay rights, are typically driven by shifts in public attitudes over time. Governments tend to respond to these changes rather than initiate them, reflecting a broader societal evolution. This organic process of change highlights the influence of collective actions and social negotiations on shaping moral standards and societal outcomes.
• The analysis of the internet's evolution focuses on its decentralized nature, evolving independently through collective contributions. This decentralized structure challenges centralized control, fostering organic growth and innovation. The governance implications suggest a shift towards more decentralized and participatory models, reducing reliance on traditional top-down frameworks. Cryptocurrencies like bitcoin are seen as tools that can reduce government dominance over monetary systems, promoting economic stability through decentralized oversight.