PDF Summary:Never Caught, by Erica Armstrong Dunbar

In Never Caught, Erica Armstrong Dunbar chronicles Ona Judge's life-long pursuit of freedom and self-determination. As an enslaved woman in the household of George and Martha Washington, Ona's story offers a unique lens into the domestic lives of the prominent Washingtons as well as the dangers and complex paths to liberation for African Americans in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.

Judge's formative years, her steadfast service, her daring escape from the Washington household, and her subsequent life as a fugitive are recounted in detail. Dunbar explores how the networks of free African American communities in cities like Philadelphia provided crucial assistance to individuals fleeing from enslavement, while also examining the ways wealthy elites like the Washingtons fought to maintain their control over human property.

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Ona faced challenges while trying to live a hidden life after marrying Jack Staines.

Ona Judge and Jack Staines, a free African-descended sailor, were wed in January 1797, forging a new family bond and affirming her commitment to a liberated existence. Dunbar depicts their relationship as being founded on mutual affection and an understanding of the challenges faced by African Americans in the early stages of the United States, highlighting Ona's pursuit of stability and her unwavering determination to achieve independence. The writer highlights that Ona's legally acknowledged union in New Hampshire provided her with a degree of protection and the opportunity to create a life liberated from the whims of a white proprietor.

However, the life Ona led while evading capture was perpetually marred by uncertainty. The birth of their child Eliza intensified her worry for the well-being of her family and strengthened her determination to achieve a life free from the threat of bondage, particularly when her husband was absent for extended durations on maritime journeys. Dunbar highlights the complex legal challenges Ona faced, noting that despite her daughter's birth in a region where slavery was rare, she inherited the status of a fugitive like her mother and was considered part of the Custis estate, facing the constant threat of enslavement.

Practical Tips

• Start a book club or discussion group focused on lesser-known historical figures or events, encouraging members to bring forward stories and information that are often overlooked. This can foster a community of learning and appreciation for the diverse narratives that form our history, similar to the way Ona Judge's marriage provides a window into the lives of individuals during her time.
• Engage in skill-swapping with friends or community members to cultivate independence without financial expenditure. For instance, if you're good at cooking and a friend excels at car maintenance, offer to cook meals in exchange for car repair lessons. This barter system allows you to become more self-sufficient in various aspects of life while strengthening community bonds.
• Consider creating a personal "liberation plan" that outlines steps to achieve independence within your current or future relationships. This might include setting financial goals, pursuing educational opportunities, or establishing personal boundaries. By doing so, you're actively working towards a life that aligns with your values and aspirations, much like seeking a liberated life through marriage.
• Embrace uncertainty in decision-making by using a coin toss to make small, inconsequential choices. This can help you become more comfortable with uncertainty in a controlled way. For example, if you're undecided about what to eat for lunch, flip a coin to decide between two options. Over time, this practice can reduce the anxiety associated with uncertainty.
• Start a "Determination Jar" where you write down daily commitments or actions that reflect your determination to achieve a goal. Each day, jot down something you did that moves you closer to your objective, fold it up, and put it in the jar. This visual representation of your determination can serve as a motivator and a way to track progress over time.
• You can explore the historical context of the region mentioned by researching local archives online to understand the legal and social atmosphere of the time. By doing this, you'll gain a deeper appreciation for the challenges faced by individuals in similar situations as Ona. For example, if Ona's story took place in a northern U.S. state in the 19th century, you might look up census records, historical newspapers, or legal documents from that state to see how rare slavery was and what legal challenges might have arisen.
• Explore the impact of historical narratives on present-day issues by volunteering with organizations that work with communities facing systemic challenges. By engaging directly with people whose lives are shaped by long-standing social structures, you'll gain firsthand insight into how the past continues to influence the present, much like the inherited status in the narrative you're exploring.

The complex interplay involved in wealthy white individuals attempting to recapture runaway slaves and maintaining them within their domestic environments.

This part examines the world of the Washingtons, focusing on their views on slavery, describing how they managed their domestic servants, and the strategies they employed to track down Ona Judge after she escaped to freedom. Dunbar's meticulous research uncovers the intricacies and paradoxes of enslavement within a family of notable American status, emphasizing the Washingtons' condescending attitude toward the people they enslaved, their deliberate strategies to sidestep emancipation legislation in the North, and their relentless resolve to retain possession of those they considered their property.

The way the Washingtons relied on and engaged with their household staff.

The Washingtons, who had numerous enslaved individuals at Mount Vernon, entrusted a chosen few with overseeing their domestic operations, which encompassed the management of their homes in the urban centers of New York and Philadelphia. Dunbar emphasizes the unique positions these individuals occupied in the Washington household, serving as personal aides, culinary staff, personal assistants, and guardians responsible for the safety and care of the president's younger relatives. Living in proximity to the Washingtons allowed them to become intimately familiar with the private intricacies of the presidential family's lifestyle, but it also exposed them to the mental burden and relentless demands of attending to every need of their master.

Dunbar explores the Washingtons' struggle to balance their reliance on the labor of those they enslaved with the necessity of maintaining a respectable public image, especially while residing in the northern states. The writer emphasizes the struggle within the Washingtons as they sought to reconcile their ownership of slaves with the growing dissent against the institution of slavery, illustrating their deliberate efforts to exert control over those they enslaved, restrict interactions with free Blacks, and circumvent laws in the North that threatened their human property.

George and Martha Washington followed particular standards in the selection and appointment of their household staff.

The writer highlights the specific standards the Washingtons used to determine the slaves from Mount Vernon they selected to join them on their journey to the north. Dunbar notes that the Washingtons prioritized loyalty, obedience, and polished manners, selecting individuals they deemed trustworthy and skilled in navigating the high social circles within the notable urban centers like New York and Philadelphia. The writer suggests that the Washingtons exhibited a bias toward enslaved people with fairer skin tones, reflecting the widespread biases of the era that equated lighter skin with higher intelligence and refinement.

Dunbar explores how the Washingtons allocated responsibilities within the presidential homes, aligning these roles with the skills they perceived in the individuals they held in bondage and closely monitoring their interactions with salaried employees, visitors, and the wider community. The author emphasizes that the Washingtons, acutely aware of the growing debates over servitude in the northern states, made efforts to display a facade of domestic harmony and benevolent oversight to deter criticism and maintain their revered position in American society.

Context

• This bias is reflected in contemporary art and literature of the time, which often depicted lighter-skinned individuals in more favorable or prominent roles, reinforcing societal norms.

Other Perspectives

• While the Washingtons may have had specific standards for selecting household staff, it is possible that these standards were not uniformly applied or were influenced by other factors such as convenience, availability, or necessity.
• Selecting staff based on obedience might result in a power dynamic that suppresses individuality and personal growth among the servants.
• The emphasis on polished manners and social skills might reflect the Washingtons' desire to project a certain image rather than a genuine appreciation for the enslaved individuals' abilities.
• Assigning tasks based on perceived skills is subjective and could be influenced by personal biases, potentially resulting in unfair labor practices.
• The practice of monitoring might not have been as pervasive or as motivated by image management as suggested, but rather an occasional measure taken in specific circumstances.
• The notion of domestic harmony could have been a personal value or goal for the Washingtons, independent of the external pressures or criticisms they might face.
• The focus on maintaining a revered position might have been secondary to the practical aspects of running a presidential household under intense public scrutiny.

The Washingtons harbored concerns that their slaves might be exposed to the widespread abolitionist sentiments present in the Northern states.

The Washingtons were acutely aware of the growing opposition to slavery in the northern states and understood that this could influence their enslaved people to adopt anti-slavery sentiments. Dunbar describes the efforts to limit the communication and association between those in bondage and free African Americans, as well as controlling their awareness of the laws related to freedom in the Northern states. The author details how the Washingtons evaded Pennsylvania's gradual emancipation statute by regularly transporting their enslaved individuals back to Mount Vernon every six months, effectively resetting the clock on their residency period.

Dunbar emphasizes the challenges the Washingtons faced in maintaining control over their enslaved people in city environments where opinions regarding slavery were increasingly divided. The author suggests that the fear of insurrection among the enslaved, along with concerns about disdain or the possibility of escape, heightened their meticulous efforts to shield their human property from the allure of freedom and preserve their economic interest in them.

Context

• In urban settings, there was a higher likelihood of interaction between enslaved individuals and free Black communities, which facilitated the exchange of ideas and information about freedom and rights.

Other Perspectives

• The effectiveness of these measures in preventing the spread of abolitionist sentiments is questionable, as ideas of freedom and resistance could still be disseminated through other means, such as rumors, pamphlets, or the presence of abolitionist movements in the broader society.
• The idea that the Washingtons could control the slaves' awareness might underestimate the agency and communicative networks of the enslaved people, who could have learned about Northern laws through their own means.
• The six-month rotation could be argued to demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of the law and a calculated effort to maintain the status quo, which could be criticized as a manipulation of legal systems to perpetuate slavery.
• The fear of insurrection and escape could have been a projection of guilt or recognition of the inherent injustice of slavery, rather than a response to any tangible threat posed by the enslaved people.
• The focus on economic interest does not account for the potential moral dilemmas or personal conflicts the Washingtons might have experienced regarding slavery.

George and Martha Washington persistently pursued the return of Ona Judge after she fled from their bondage.

Ona Judge's escape posed significant challenges for the Washingtons, affecting them deeply in both personal and political spheres. Dunbar describes the rapid actions taken to locate Ona, utilizing their widespread connections, influence in the federal government, and relationships with prominent figures, with particular attention to the region where Ona found refuge, specifically the vicinity of Portsmouth in the state of New Hampshire. The author highlights the lengths to which the Washingtons went to reclaim what they viewed as their property, demonstrating their unwavering commitment to protect their economic stake in the institution of slavery and to set an example that would deter future escape efforts.

As the nation's leader and utilizing his extensive connections, George Washington made attempts to find Ona.

Erica Armstrong Dunbar reveals the methods by which the first leader of the United States harnessed the power of his office, involving federal agencies in the pursuit of Ona Judge. He took steps to guarantee Ona's capture and enforced return to Virginia by directing Joseph Whipple, who oversaw the customs office in Portsmouth, through communications with Oliver Wolcott Jr., the Secretary of the Treasury. The writer emphasizes how the government's clandestine exertion of authority, unbeknownst to Ona and without her consent, encroached upon her legitimate liberties and demonstrated the lengths to which the president would go to affirm his control over people.

Dunbar recounts how Washington utilized his connections, particularly his longstanding association with Senator John Langdon of New Hampshire, to gather information about Ona's whereabouts and to persuade local authorities to assist in her re-apprehension. The author highlights the extensive impact Washington had in various aspects of society and government, emphasizing the significant sway held by the nation's first leader, especially in a region where the enslavement of individuals was on the decline.

Context

• Washington's efforts to recapture Ona Judge were largely kept out of the public eye to avoid damaging his reputation, as public opinion in the North was increasingly against slavery.
• The pursuit of Ona Judge by a sitting president underscores the moral and ethical contradictions of the era, where leaders who advocated for liberty and freedom also participated in and upheld the institution of slavery.
• Joseph Whipple was the collector of customs in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. His position involved overseeing trade and enforcing federal laws related to customs, which made him a key figure in local governance and law enforcement.
• As President, Washington was in a unique position to leverage federal resources and influence to pursue Ona Judge, reflecting the broader power dynamics and the intersection of personal interests with public office.
• At the time, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 allowed slaveholders to capture escaped enslaved people across state lines, which Washington used to justify his pursuit.
• Washington's foreign policy decisions, such as the Jay Treaty with Britain, showcased his ability to influence international relations and set the tone for future diplomatic engagements.
• Ona's escape and Washington's response underscore the specific vulnerabilities and resistance of enslaved women, who often faced unique challenges and risks.

The Washingtons faced considerable obstacles, legally and socially, in their efforts to capture Ona.

Ona Judge's escape posed a unique challenge to the household of the Washingtons. Dunbar emphasizes that while laws permitted enslavers to pursue escaped individuals, the Washingtons encountered growing resistance in the area that became Ona's refuge, particularly in New Hampshire. The author suggests that the Washingtons' efforts to recapture Ona were impeded by worries about their public image, understanding that a persistent chase of a fugitive enslaved individual could draw negative publicity and heighten criticism from those who opposed the institution of enslavement.

Dunbar recounts how the Washingtons' efforts to reclaim Ona were thwarted, as she chose not to return and instead found refuge within the free Black community in Portsmouth. The author highlights the changing attitudes toward slavery, noting that in the region under New Hampshire's jurisdiction, officials, although obligated to uphold federal laws, demonstrated reluctance to assist in the retrieval of a fugitive slave, especially when that person belonged to the President of the United States.

Context

• Enslavers were required to present evidence of ownership to reclaim an escaped individual, often involving local courts, which could be sympathetic to abolitionist causes.
• The abolitionist movement was gaining momentum in the northern states, including New Hampshire. This movement provided networks and support systems for escaped enslaved individuals, offering them protection and assistance.
• Newspapers and pamphlets were primary sources of information and opinion during this time. Negative stories about the Washingtons' pursuit of Ona Judge could spread quickly, influencing public perception and political discourse.
• Portsmouth, being a port city, offered economic opportunities for free Black individuals, including jobs in shipping, domestic work, and skilled trades, which could provide a means of self-sufficiency for someone like Ona Judge.
• The period was marked by intense moral and ethical debates about the legitimacy and humanity of slavery, influencing both public opinion and legal practices.
• There was often tension between state and federal authority. Local officials in New Hampshire might have prioritized local values and public opinion over strict adherence to federal mandates, reflecting early American conflicts over states' rights.

The Washington family's attempts to re-enslave Ona were unsuccessful.

The Washingtons repeatedly faced defeat in their efforts to force Ona Judge back into enslavement. Dunbar suggests that several factors contributed to Ona's ability to avoid being recaptured, including her unwavering determination to remain free, the growing resistance in the North to the recovery of fugitive slaves, and the reluctance of the Washingtons to pursue aggressive legal actions that might damage their reputation. The writer highlights Ona's skillful evasion of the Washingtons' attempts to recapture her, noting that her triumph can be attributed to the support from communities of free African Americans, her own cleverness, and her unwavering resolve to resist any coercion or promises of eventual liberty.

Dunbar emphasizes Ona Judge's ability to continually evade the Washingtons' relentless attempts to recapture her, demonstrating the enduring power of the inherent desire for freedom. She argues that Ona's story challenges the traditional view of enslaved individuals as merely submissive, highlighting their active defiance, self-assertion, and continuous pursuit of independence.

Context

• After her escape, Ona lived in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where she worked and started a family, remaining vigilant against capture for the rest of her life.
• Choosing to remain free meant that Ona Judge had to leave her family and live with the constant threat of recapture. Her determination involved significant personal sacrifice, highlighting her commitment to freedom over familial ties and personal safety.
• George Washington was the first President of the United States, and his actions were highly scrutinized. His involvement in the recapture of an escaped enslaved person could have had political ramifications.
• Enslaved people often used cultural forms of resistance, such as maintaining African traditions, storytelling, and music, to assert their identity and resist dehumanization.

Other Perspectives

• The personal connections and networks Ona Judge established could have been equally or more important than the general sentiment in the North, as these relationships may have provided direct assistance and resources for her to remain hidden.
• The characterization of the Washingtons as reluctant could be re-evaluated in light of the broader context of how other slave owners acted at the time, potentially revealing that their actions were not out of the ordinary.
• The reluctance of the Washingtons to pursue aggressive legal action, as mentioned, suggests that external factors beyond Ona's control also played a significant role in her ability to remain free.

The assistance provided by free black communities in the North played a crucial role in helping enslaved individuals on their journey to freedom.

This section delves into the crucial role that northern free black communities had in assisting enslaved individuals on their journey to freedom. Dunbar highlights the crucial part that Northern African Americans played in creating a solid foundation of backing for those who fled from bondage, emphasizing their commitment to self-determination, community aid, and the struggle for equal rights during a period when the institution of slavery was deeply entrenched in American society. Ona Judge's story stands as a compelling tribute to the spirit of community, underscoring the courage and compassion of those who risked their own safety to assist individuals like Ona in their quest for freedom.

The growing enclaves of emancipated African Americans and the campaigns for liberation in cities like New York and Philadelphia.

The population of free African Americans in New York and Philadelphia saw significant growth during the period in which Ona Judge resided in these cities. Dunbar depicts the emergence of vibrant African American communities that challenged the existing racial hierarchy and actively resisted enslavement. The author highlights how African Americans established networks of support, educational institutions, and religious organizations that fostered independence and provided essential aid to fugitives seeking refuge in the North.

The writer also underscores the growing influence of Northern abolitionist groups, drawing attention to the increased awareness of the horrors associated with slavery and the intensifying debates regarding its moral and legal ramifications. She posits that the transformation of societal views, influenced by abolitionists of diverse heritages, created a more welcoming environment in the Northern states, which offered fugitive slaves increased opportunities for assistance and refuge from those opposed to slavery.

Free African Americans played a pivotal role in establishing educational institutions, a variety of support networks, and other community organizations.

In metropolitan centers like New York and Philadelphia, Dunbar recounts the proactive steps taken by free African Americans to establish support systems, educational institutions, and vital organizations that were instrumental in maintaining their communities. The writer highlights the Free African Society, founded in Philadelphia in 1787 by Richard Allen and Absalom Jones, as a prime example of these community initiatives, noting its dedication to aiding widows, the poor, and escapees from slavery.

Dunbar underscores the significance of learning within Northern black communities as a pathway for individual development and as an instrument for promoting societal equity among different races. She describes the establishment of institutions in New York City, referred to as African Free Schools, that focused on the academic growth of African American youth and nurtured notable abolitionists like Alexander Crummell and Henry Highland Garnet. The writer suggests that in the face of pervasive discrimination and limited means, the collective efforts of the Black community demonstrated their commitment to creating a future free from racial oppression.

Context

• Churches often served as community centers where educational and social initiatives were organized. Religious leaders were frequently at the forefront of these efforts, using their influence to mobilize resources and support.
• Richard Allen and Absalom Jones were both former slaves who became prominent leaders in the African American community. Allen went on to found the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first independent Black denomination in the United States.
• During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, education was often denied to African Americans due to systemic racism and legal restrictions. Access to education was seen as a means to challenge these barriers and assert equality.
• Crummell was an influential African American minister, academic, and African nationalist who advocated for the intellectual and moral uplift of African Americans and was a proponent of the colonization movement, which encouraged African Americans to emigrate to Africa.
• The collective efforts of African Americans were rooted in a strong sense of community and mutual aid. Organizations like the Free African Society were not only about providing immediate assistance but also about fostering a sense of unity and shared purpose in the fight against oppression.

Prominent figures in the African American community, such as Richard Allen, were instrumental in assisting individuals who fled from enslavement.

Dunbar underscores the crucial role of African American individuals like Richard Allen in providing assistance to runaway slaves seeking refuge in the North. Allen, a prominent minister and entrepreneur in Philadelphia, was known for his role in the secret system of routes and safe havens that helped individuals escape slavery and pursue freedom in the North and Canada, a system that came to be called the Underground Railroad. The author suggests that Allen's deep religious convictions, coupled with his personal history of enslavement, played a crucial role in his commitment to helping others achieve liberty.

Dunbar proposes that Ona Judge might have sought assistance from Allen while planning her escape from the Washington household, considering they were both in Philadelphia at the same time, a situation that likely resulted in multiple encounters. While Ona never publicly disclosed her allies, Dunbar's research indicates that Allen and other significant African American figures were instrumental in aiding many escapees by offering advice, monetary assistance, and entry to a clandestine network of secure locations that were essential to the covert pathway known for assisting fugitive slaves in their flight to freedom.

Context

• Allen's work laid the groundwork for future civil rights movements by emphasizing self-help, community organization, and the importance of faith in social justice efforts.
• Assisting runaway slaves was illegal and punishable by fines or imprisonment under laws like the Fugitive Slave Act. Those involved in the Underground Railroad, including Allen, risked their freedom and safety to help others.
• The network referred to is known as the Underground Railroad, a secret system of routes and safe houses used by enslaved African Americans to escape into free states and Canada. It was neither underground nor a railroad but rather a series of coordinated efforts by abolitionists and allies.

Other Perspectives

• The emphasis on Allen's personal history and religious beliefs might overshadow the collective efforts and diverse motivations of the wider network of individuals involved in the Underground Railroad, which included people of various backgrounds and beliefs.
• Ona Judge never publicly disclosed her allies, which means any claim of specific assistance from individuals like Allen remains speculative without corroborative historical records.
• The emphasis on the role of African American leaders in aiding escapes might inadvertently minimize the agency of the enslaved individuals who planned and executed their own escapes, often before making contact with any assistance networks.

The African American community in Portsmouth provided Ona Judge with shelter and assistance.

The community of African Americans in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, played a crucial role in helping Ona Judge avoid recapture, allowing her to establish a life in that area. Dunbar emphasizes how a handful of African Americans in Portsmouth, who were well aware of the perils associated with enslavement, provided Ona with refuge and assistance, recognizing the significance of aiding those in pursuit of freedom. The author highlights the collective efforts of African Americans who were not enslaved, providing Ona with a safe haven, assisting her in finding employment, and shielding her from the Washingtons and their agents who were determined to re-enslave her.

Dunbar's detailed portrayal illustrates the resilience and unity of Northern black communities, as evidenced through Ona's time spent in Portsmouth, which highlight their dedication to mutual support, autonomy, and the pursuit of equal rights. Ona's story serves as a powerful testament to the compassion, courage, and covert support provided by those who risked their own safety and freedom to help fugitives on their journey to freedom.

Ona received assistance and refuge from free African American families as she fled the Washington household.

The author recounts Ona's reliance on free black families in Portsmouth who provided her with shelter, employment, and protection during her years as a fugitive. Dunbar highlights the pivotal role played by the Jack family, with particular attention to Phillis Jack, the matriarch who had once been enslaved and who, upon gaining her freedom, was granted a small parcel of land, in providing support to Ona. The author describes how the Jacks took Ona into their home, offering her refuge from potential slave catchers and assisting her in building a new life for herself in Portsmouth.

Dunbar suggests that, like many other free black families in the North, the Jacks were conscious of the dangers and anxieties associated with being fugitives and likely had experience in aiding those seeking freedom from enslavement. She underscores their dedication to supporting each other and their readiness to distribute their scarce resources to assist others, even when faced with potential legal consequences and economic difficulties.

Practical Tips

• Enhance your family's legacy of support by documenting and sharing your family's history of helping others. Use a blog, video diary, or a digital photo album to capture and narrate instances where your family members have supported each other or those in the community, thereby encouraging and inspiring others to do the same.
• Consider volunteering your time to mentor someone who could benefit from your skills or experience. This could be through a community program or an online platform that connects mentors with mentees. By sharing your knowledge, you're honoring the legacy of those who have used their resources to uplift others. For instance, if you're good at budgeting, you could mentor someone who is looking to get their finances in order.
• You can support individuals seeking asylum by volunteering with local refugee assistance programs. By offering your time and skills, you can help newcomers navigate the complexities of building a new life in your community. For example, you might assist with language tutoring, job searches, or transportation to legal appointments.
• Create a 'time bank' where community members can exchange hours of service instead of money. You could babysit someone's child for two hours, and in return, someone else could help you with gardening for the equivalent time. This system encourages reciprocity and sharing of diverse skills within the community, without the need for financial transactions.

People who were not enslaved but shared African heritage faced a myriad of legal and practical challenges when they offered sanctuary to those fleeing bondage.

People in the North who were free encountered considerable risks when they helped others flee the bonds of enslavement. The author highlights that the law established in the late eighteenth century was designed to impose harsh monetary fines and the risk of imprisonment on those who hid or aided fugitive slaves. She suggests that communities of freed African Americans consistently provided support and refuge to individuals fleeing servitude, demonstrating their unwavering commitment to resisting bondage and aiding those seeking freedom.

The writer also highlights the challenges faced by free black families in providing refuge to fugitive slaves, recognizing the financial burden of ensuring food, clothing, and shelter for those in need of assistance. Dunbar emphasizes the economic hardships endured by Northern black communities, who were subjected to pervasive discrimination in work, living conditions, and numerous aspects of daily existence. Despite facing numerous challenges, individuals of African heritage consistently offered assistance to those escaping enslavement, demonstrating their steadfast commitment to mutual aid and the struggle for racial equality.

Practical Tips

• Create a digital map of local historical sites related to the Underground Railroad using free online mapping tools. This project can help you visualize the geographical challenges and the network that free African Americans were part of when providing sanctuary. You might research and pinpoint locations like safe houses, churches, and other landmarks that played a role in the journey of fleeing slaves, adding descriptions and historical facts to each point on your map.
• Start a community garden as a symbolic and practical gesture of support, mirroring the communal efforts of the past. Invite neighbors, including immigrants and refugees, to participate in growing food and creating a shared space. This garden can serve as a metaphor for growth and sanctuary, and practically, it can provide fresh produce to those who may have limited access to it.
• Create a personal spending challenge where you exclusively buy from black-owned businesses for a set period. This will not only help you understand the importance of supporting these businesses but also potentially uncover any systemic barriers they face. Document your experience and share it on social media to encourage others to do the same.
• You can honor the spirit of mutual aid by volunteering with organizations that support marginalized communities. Look for local groups that provide services like legal aid, educational resources, or job training, and dedicate a few hours each month to assist in their efforts. This not only helps continue the legacy of support but also connects you with the ongoing struggle for equity and justice.
• Engage in conversations with your peers about the importance of taking risks to help others in need, drawing parallels to historical acts of courage. Create a safe space for dialogue by starting a book club or discussion group that focuses on literature about social justice and human rights. This can inspire collective action within your community and foster a culture of support for those who are vulnerable.
• Reflect on your daily choices and identify ways to support modern freedom causes. This could be as simple as choosing to buy from businesses that are known for ethical practices or donating to organizations that work to combat modern forms of bondage. By aligning your actions with your values, you contribute to a culture of resistance and freedom in your own life.
• You can deepen your understanding of historical discrimination by creating a personal reading list that includes biographies and autobiographies of individuals from northern black communities during the relevant time period. By reading these personal stories, you'll gain a more nuanced perspective of the challenges faced in work and living conditions, which can foster empathy and a deeper understanding of systemic issues.

Other Perspectives

• The severity of the penalties for aiding fugitive slaves varied by state and locality, with some areas imposing less harsh consequences than others.
• The focus on financial burdens might overshadow other forms of contributions and support from broader society, including white allies, religious organizations, and other sympathizers who also played roles in the sanctuary efforts.
• The act of providing food, clothing, and shelter could have been a communal effort rather than solely the responsibility of individual families, thus distributing the financial impact across a larger group.

The enduring effects on families and communities stem from the heritage of bondage, persisting even beyond liberation.

This part of the narrative explores the enduring impact of slavery on family and community bonds, illustrating through the lives of Ona Judge and her sister, Philadelphia Costin, the ongoing struggle for liberty and justice well into the 19th century. Dunbar's analysis emphasizes that although freedom offered a respite from the constraints of legal servitude, it was insufficient to heal the persistent social, economic, and psychological scars left by slavery, nor did it guarantee a life free from discrimination, vulnerability, and the ever-present threat of recapture.

Ona's narrative exemplifies how the trading and moving of enslaved people led to the disruption of their family ties.

Dunbar emphasizes the deep impact that slavery had on family ties, highlighting how often families were separated due to sales, inheritances, trades, and forced relocations. The author depicts Ona Judge's struggle with the heartache of separation from her family and the fear of embarking on a journey with the Washingtons to the North, a region unknown to her, away from the comforts of Mount Vernon. The author suggests that the constant threat of separation from loved ones, which was a fundamental element of slavery, instilled profound anxieties within those in bondage and served as a major deterrent to fleeing, as numerous individuals were concerned about the potential consequences their family might endure if they tried to flee.

During her time at Mount Vernon, Ona experienced the hardship of being isolated from her siblings and other relatives.

Ona Judge's relocation to New York in 1789 set in motion a chain of occurrences that resulted in her estrangement from her family. Dunbar illustrates the deep emotional toll taken on Ona, who suffered the agonizing division from her mother, her brother Austin, her sisters Betty and Philadelphia, and other relatives who remained enslaved at Mount Vernon. The writer emphasizes the instability experienced by enslaved families, pointing out their lack of legal protection and the constant threat of being sold, relocated, or redistributed according to the whims of their owners.

Practical Tips

• You can deepen your empathy by writing a letter from the perspective of someone who has experienced isolation. Imagine the emotions, challenges, and hopes they might have, and articulate these in a letter to yourself or a fictional friend. This exercise can help you understand the profound effects of isolation on an individual's psyche and social connections.
• Engage in role-playing exercises where you and a friend act out scenarios of separation and reunion. Take turns playing different roles and discuss the feelings that arise. This can provide insight into the complexities of human relationships and the emotional toll of being apart from family members. For example, one scenario could involve acting out a scene where one person has to leave their family for an extended period, and the subsequent reunion, focusing on the emotional dynamics of each moment.

While fleeing, Ona faced considerable obstacles in maintaining her ties to her family.

Ona's decision to escape from the Washington household during her time in Philadelphia increased the distance between her and her family at Mount Vernon. Dunbar portrays Ona's apprehension that her escape in pursuit of freedom might result in her family facing retribution from those who considered her their property. The author emphasizes that while Ona's escape to liberty provided her with a degree of autonomy, it simultaneously forced her to bear the heartache of separation from her family and friends.

The author's investigation illuminates the challenges Ona faced in her quest to maintain family connections while she was fleeing. The immense distance from Mount Vernon to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, along with the risk of recapture and the difficulties in maintaining communication, presented significant obstacles for Ona in her efforts to maintain connections with her family. Dunbar suggests that while Ona may have occasionally received clandestine updates about her family, her existence as a fugitive predominantly led to a life of solitude, cut off from the close-knit circle she was once part of in the home of George Washington.

Practical Tips

• Create a family newsletter that circulates via email or mail on a regular basis. This can include updates from different family members, upcoming birthdays, anniversaries, or milestones. It's a way to keep everyone in the loop with family news, fostering a sense of unity and ongoing involvement in each other's lives, even when separated by circumstances.
• Develop a decision-making flowchart for complex situations. Start with a central question, like "Should I make a significant change?" and branch out with possible outcomes and considerations, such as the well-being of loved ones. This visual tool can guide you through the process of making choices that have far-reaching implications.
• Create a 'freedom fund' to financially support occasional gatherings with loved ones if your autonomy has geographically distanced you from them.
• Improve your contingency planning by mapping out escape routes and communication plans for different scenarios. For example, if you're planning a trip, identify multiple routes to your destination and establish alternative communication methods, such as using walkie-talkies or pre-written notes, in case your primary means fail. This prepares you for unexpected situations and helps you think on your feet.

The experiences of Ona's sibling, Philadelphia, and her descendants vividly demonstrated the lasting impact of enslavement.

Dunbar emphasizes the contrasting trajectories of Ona Judge and her sibling Philadelphia, illustrating the persistent impact of slavery on African American families and communities beyond the era of emancipation. Ona achieved her liberty and forged a new life in New Hampshire, whereas Philadelphia remained enslaved at Mount Vernon. Eliza Custis Law inherited the very future in Philadelphia that Ona had so desperately sought to flee after Martha Washington's death.

The author's narrative, though not as detailed as Ona's own recounting, illuminates the persistent struggles faced by African Americans following their emancipation. Dunbar highlights how Eliza Custis Law, once released from her marriage to Thomas Law, subsequently married William Costin, an African American man who rose to prominence within the emerging black community in Washington, DC. The author emphasizes that the Costins, as well as many other individuals who had been liberated, persisted in facing challenges associated with financial difficulties, discrimination, and the ever-present threat of being kidnapped, even after they had attained their liberty.

The Custis family's grandchildren were eventually liberated after a period of enslavement.

Dunbar recounts the period after Martha Washington's death when it was anticipated that Ona Judge would enter the service of Eliza Custis Law, being given to her as a gift in celebration of her marriage. The author emphasizes that the existence of enslaved individuals in Philadelphia was profoundly influenced by the arbitrary decisions and traditional practices of those who asserted ownership over them.

Dunbar also narrates how, in 1807, Thomas Law was instrumental in advancing the move toward freedom in Philadelphia, a change likely shaped by changing views on slavery and the challenges of managing enslaved individuals in an urban environment where opposition to slavery was on the rise.

Context

• Thomas Law, mentioned in the context, was an Englishman who married into the Custis family and was known for his progressive views, which may have contributed to the eventual liberation of the Custis grandchildren.
• Eliza Custis Law was Martha Washington’s granddaughter. The practice of giving enslaved people as gifts was common among wealthy families during this time.
• As a prominent figure, Law's actions or advocacy could have had a ripple effect, encouraging other influential citizens to reconsider their stance on slavery and contribute to the growing movement for emancipation in the city.
• The economy in urban areas was shifting towards wage labor and industrialization, reducing the reliance on enslaved labor and making the institution of slavery less economically viable.

The Costin family constantly faced financial hardships and was always at risk of being abducted.

Despite their freedom, Philadelphia Costin and her family faced the challenges of poverty and the ongoing threat of kidnapping. Dunbar recounts their efforts to create a secure life, highlighting how William Costin secured a position as a baggage handler at the Bank of Washington and engaged in various entrepreneurial activities to provide for his family's financial security. The author highlights that, akin to many African Americans who were free in the period following the American Revolution, the Costins faced significant hurdles in obtaining employment and finding a place to live, which hindered their ability to escape poverty and achieve economic independence.

The writer emphasizes that, despite possessing documents meant to protect their liberty, free African Americans in the District of Columbia remained vulnerable to kidnapping, as those hunting for enslaved individuals often ignored these documents and singled out those with darker complexions who might be mistaken for fugitive slaves. Dunbar suggests the Costins, like many other free African descent families, were always aware of the ever-present danger, remained ever-watchful to avoid situations that might cause doubt, and relied on the robust connections within their community to protect against the danger of capture.

Context

• Systemic racism and discriminatory practices severely limited job opportunities for African Americans, making it difficult for families like the Costins to achieve financial stability.
• The Bank of Washington, established in the early 1800s, was a significant financial institution in the capital. Working there, even in a modest role, could provide a level of stability and respectability.
• Kidnapping free African Americans was a lucrative business for slave catchers and traders. They could sell kidnapped individuals into slavery in the South, where there was a high demand for labor.
• The practice of targeting individuals based on skin color was a form of racial profiling. Darker-skinned individuals were more likely to be suspected of being runaway slaves, reflecting the deeply ingrained racial prejudices of the time.

Other Perspectives

• The challenges in obtaining employment and housing were not uniform across all states or regions; some areas with larger free black populations had more established support networks and opportunities that could mitigate these difficulties to an extent.
• The level of awareness and the constant sense of danger might have varied among different family members, with some perhaps being more optimistic or feeling more secure due to their social connections or personal experiences.
• Relying on community connections for protection could have placed a significant burden on the community, potentially stretching resources thin and not providing a foolproof safeguard against kidnapping.