PDF Summary:How to Become a Straight-A Student, by Cal Newport

Getting good grades in college opens up your world: It can help you get into better graduate schools and even get better jobs. But how do you do well in college? Most students assume they must study endlessly to do well. However, in How to Become a Straight-A Student, professor and productivity expert Cal Newport argues that there's a better way: With the right study techniques, you can ace your college courses with just a few hours of studying each day.

In this guide, we’ll share those study techniques. You’ll learn how to plan your day effectively, combat procrastination, ace all your exams, and write fantastic papers. Along the way, we'll explore how Newport fleshes out these ideas further in his blog posts and his other books, and we'll examine how his recommendations compare to those of other academic experts.

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But how do you pinpoint and understand these overarching ideas? The first key, Newport argues, is to take good notes in lectures, during which your professor will tell you what these ideas are. Unfortunately, your professor likely won’t be explicit about these ideas; instead, you’ll have to decipher their main points. (Shortform note: Other study experts agree that taking good notes matters. However, they argue that instead of trying to pinpoint the professor’s main point, you should try to decipher what’s likely to be on the exam or essay. Sometimes, your professor will be explicit about this. Other times, you’ll have to rely on context cues—like by noting any points your professor repeats.)

Newport contends that you can decipher main points by using the Question/Evidence/Conclusion (Q/E/C) method when taking notes. Every main theme can be broken down into a Question, its Evidence, and the Conclusion. Therefore, your lecture notes should also be formatted so they include the professor’s question(s), her conclusion(s), and any supporting evidence for each conclusion. You’ll probably need to write these out of order; often, your professor will present some evidence before she discusses her question. That’s OK as long as you eventually figure out all three parts. If you’re unsure if you’ve correctly understood a part, ask questions during the lecture or clarify your conclusions during your professor’s office hours.

(Shortform note: In a 2007 blog post, Newport elaborates on why the Q/E/C method—as it’s become known—helps you ace your classes in less time. He argues that humanities exams test you not on the facts but on why the facts matter. So if your lecture notes are just a list of facts, when it’s time to study for the test, you’ll have to think about why they matter—which takes up a lot of time. By using the Q/E/C method, you think about why these facts matter during the lecture and can clarify your understanding immediately or at office hours. Therefore, when it comes time to study for the test, you have less to do: Instead of trying to process why the facts matter, you simply have to review why they do.)

Newport argues that the second key to understanding the main themes of a course is to prioritize the right reading because you can’t feasibly complete all the texts most humanities courses assign. To prioritize correctly, do all the reading from the main texts—these will appear multiple times on your syllabus. Take relatively detailed notes on these readings using the Q/E/C method, remembering that the conclusion—or main point—of a text is usually its thesis.

Newport recommends that you look at the other texts, too, but not nearly as carefully. If a text has a thesis, read it well enough to understand what that thesis is. Skim texts that give detailed accounts of important figures or occurrences so you learn relevant facts. Skip everything else, but bring these texts to class so you can refer to them if the professor discusses them.

(Shortform note: One study blogger also recommends not reading all assigned texts; however, she suggests an alternate way of prioritizing and annotating them. First, pick one text that you’ll read in-depth—something you can reasonably complete but not one that gives you a general overview of the topic. Then, before reading that text, review the questions in the syllabus (not in any of your texts) and keep them in mind as you skim all the other readings. Don’t skip anything! Afterwards, jot down the key points of each reading. Finally, read the text you’ve decided to read in-depth: Take detailed notes by writing down key points, and develop good questions you can ask about the text during lecture.)

How to Ace Your STEM Classes

If you want to ace your STEM tests, Newport argues that you must understand how to solve problems. Most STEM courses don’t require you to understand overarching themes; rather, you need to master the problem-solving techniques and formulas presented so you can apply them to your own work. (Shortform note: Other experts argue that STEM classes do have overarching themes. Moreover, they argue that understanding what those themes are and how a particular point relates to them will help you stay focused in class.)

So how can you master these techniques? Newport argues that the first step is to skip the reading because your professor will describe those exact techniques to you during class. Instead, bring the reading to class to help you follow the lecture, and only review the text in-depth if you’re still lost after the lecture. (Shortform note: You may need to adjust this strategy, as some professors operate on the opposite structure: They assign readings that give you a baseline understanding of the material, then focus on answering questions and clarifying issues during class.)

Then, once you get to class, take good notes: Write down every problem and answer you hear, and do your best to write down each step of the solution—prioritizing the steps of the solution to the first problem, which is when your professor will present the most detailed explanation. If you don’t understand a specific step, Newport recommends asking questions. Clarifying your understanding during class will save you hours of study time outside of it.

(Shortform note: Newport’s note-taking strategy assumes that your STEM lectures will primarily be explanations of problems—but what if you’re taking a class like biology, which often doesn’t involve sample problems but also doesn’t lend itself to the Q/E/C method? Try the Cornell Note-taking system: Draw an upside-down T on a piece of paper. Take detailed notes on the right side of the page, and use the left side to concisely describe the major concepts. After class, summarize what you’ve learned in the bottom section.)

Finally, Newport argues that you need to work efficiently on your problem sets. To do so, first space out your problems: Select a few to try solving each day—and if you can’t, go about your day while mulling over them occasionally. Eventually, inspiration will strike, and you’ll come up with a solution.

Why Newport’s Problem-Solving Strategies Work

In Hyperfocus, Chris Bailey elaborates on why mulling over your problems periodically throughout the day can trigger a creative solution. He explains that, even if you’re not actively working on an unsolved problem, your brain continues to work on it subconsciously. As it does, your brain connects all the stimuli you encounter to your problem. Sometimes, the stimulus your brain encounters reminds it of something else it already knows. It connects this old information (or the new stimulus, which may itself be the information you were missing) to your problem—and solves it.

Bailey also explains why you should only work on a few problems at once: Your brain can only actively process a finite number of things. If you focus on too many problems at once, your brain will forget about one of the problems. If this happens, it won’t remain in your subconscious, so you won’t be able to connect new stimuli to it and solve it.

Second, Newport suggests that you work with others if you’re still stuck—as long as it’s not against the rules. Become a regular at your teachers’ office hours to ask questions, and schedule a weekly group study session with some classmates to work through any problems that confuse you even after you’ve thought about them for a while. (Shortform note: Some academic institutions have complicated rules regarding cheating, so be sure to read yours carefully. For example, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology specifies that getting a friend to help you debug your code isn’t cheating but outright comparing your code to theirs is. To be safe, stick to asking your teacher for help.)

How to Prepare for Exams

You now know how to behave throughout the semester so that you’re prepared for your tests—but how should you study for tests once they’re announced? In this section, we’ll present Newport’s step-by-step system for ensuring you get the best grades possible on any exam.

According to Newport, the first step is to collect your study materials for your exam. For a humanities course, first collect all the relevant notes and divide them into sections by subject. Then, create a practice quiz for each section using the questions in your notes, ensuring that each quiz covers all the relevant material. For a STEM course, collect all the relevant problem sets, plus one sheet of paper per problem set with the sample problems from the relevant lecture. You should also create questions that ask you to explain the fundamentals of any major topic addressed by the problem set.

(Shortform note: Other academic experts recommend creating a study guide based both on your lecture notes and your textbook. This technique is designed for STEM classes but can also be used for humanities classes that rely on a single textbook. To practice it, first review the table of contents of your textbook. Then, write down every heading from every section that you’ll be tested on. Finally, summarize the content of every section (using both the text and all relevant notes) to create your guide.)

The second step is to review your study materials. These review days should be spaced out and begin at least a day after you collect your study materials to avoid fatiguing your brain. Newport specifically recommends that you test yourself in rounds. First, answer every question in your study guide. Write down or speak these answers aloud. If you struggle, write a checkmark next to the problem. Once you’ve finished the first round, take a break—then review only the problems you wrote a checkmark next to. Keep repeating this until you stop adding checkmarks.

Why Newport’s Review Methods Work

Newport’s method of reviewing your study materials reflects Oakley’s advice in A Mind for Numbers. By spacing out your review days, beginning your review a day after you collect your study materials, and repeatedly testing yourself, you practice a proven memory technique called spaced repetition—repeatedly revisiting materials at designated intervals. By doing this, you practice what Oakley calls the most effective study method: intentional recall, which is when you test yourself by trying to intentionally retrieve information from your memory.

Finally, by stopping your review process once you stop adding checkmarks, you avoid overlearning. As Oakley notes, overlearning is when you continue to practice something after you’ve attained competence with it. This excessive repetition becomes tedious, and tedium can produce emotional stress, which prevents your brain from making certain types of neural connections and thus remembering the information on which you’ll be tested.

Third, you must gain a baseline understanding of anything you’re still confused about. As Newport notes, during your collection and review process, you’ll likely come across concepts you never quite mastered. This can be dangerous: For example, if a concept you’re unclear on is the basis of a problem worth 50% of your exam, you’ll tank your grade. Therefore, clear up confusion quickly before the exam by talking to your professors and classmates.

(Shortform note: If you’re still lost regarding a particular concept after speaking with your professors and classmates, consider looking it up on the internet. Wikipedia is a good starting point; you should also consider educational YouTube channels that can both help you understand concepts you’re unclear on and refine your understanding of ones with which you are familiar.)

How to Take Tests

With all the preparation you’ve done, you’re now ready to follow Newport’s strategies for taking the test efficiently and acing the exam. Once you receive the exam, first read all the questions to gain an idea of what the exam will be like. Then, subtract 10 minutes from the total exam time and divide the remainder by the number of questions to determine how long you should spend on each question.

Next, start answering questions from easiest to hardest to ensure you get the points for the answers you definitely know before struggling with questions you’re not sure on. Keep an eye on the clock as you do so, moving on if you’re spending too much time on a particular question. Finally, once you finish, take any time remaining to review and polish your answers so you can turn in the best possible version of your exam.

Other Study Experts’ Test-Taking Strategies

Other study experts’ strategies for efficient test-taking differ slightly from Newport’s. They also recommend limiting how long you spend on each question. But, as they note, some questions (like those that require calculations) will take longer than others (like multiple-choice questions), so you may need to get through the shorter questions faster than the time you’ve determined so you’re able to spend more time on longer questions. That said, even if you’re running out of time, they urge you not to skim through questions that seem easy because you might misunderstand one and lose a point. Finally, they recommend reviewing your answers but only changing them if you’re certain you’re wrong, as your first instinct is usually correct.

How to Write Good Essays

In addition to exams, essays often make up a large portion of your grades in college. So how do you write an essay that’s thoughtful and engaging—without spending days suffering in the library? In this section, we’ll first explore Newport’s strategies for essays that require original research. Then, we’ll discuss how to apply these steps to writing what he calls critical analysis essays.

How to Write a Research Paper

According to Newport, the first step to writing an essay that requires original research is to select an area of interest that you’d like to learn more about. Start looking for this as soon as you know about the paper by paying attention to small asides from your professor or in your texts that pique your curiosity. Once you have an idea, ask your professor about the topic; she should be able to suggest texts you can look at to learn more.

(Shortform note: Talking to your professor will also help ensure that you’re clear on the assignment so you don’t spend hours researching an irrelevant topic. But if you struggle to select an area of interest even after your clarifying conversation, try freewriting on topics relevant to class: Doing so can help you brainstorm an avenue to explore.)

Second, find a thesis. Newport clarifies that this is not a full-fledged argument; rather, this is a smaller area of research that seems promising. To find a thesis, reference a relatively encyclopedic source, then comb through its bibliography to find more specific sources. For example, in a class on US presidents, say you want to write a paper on Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR). You skim a biography of him and learn that FDR gave regular radio addresses. In reviewing the bibliography, you might find a journal article that describes how FDR’s radio addresses impacted his popularity and decide to examine how various presidents have pioneered new technologies (like social media) in election campaigns.

Third, Newport recommends summarizing your thesis to your professor. Make sure that she thinks it’s promising, and ask if she has any sources you should look at or arguments you should consider.

How Newport’s Method Helps You Write a Better Paper More Quickly

Focusing on finding an area of research that seems promising and then talking to your professor about it can help you avoid some of the paper-writing pitfalls Sönke Ahrens describes in How to Take Smart Notes. Most of us write papers by developing a hypothesis and then researching it. However, as Ahrens notes, this top-down method makes you prone to confirmation bias—your natural tendency to pay more attention to information that supports rather than contradicts your hypothesis. By focusing on initially finding an area of research instead of a hypothesis, you remain more open to information and thus reduce your risk of ignoring potentially relevant information.

Ahrens also warns that if you research after you develop a clear hypothesis, you ​​may be unable to find sufficient source material on the topic you’ve chosen. Speaking with your professor helps mitigate that risk: Since she’s an expert, she can steer you away from topics and areas of research that won’t lend themselves to supportable ideas. She may even provide your class with an online resource page to help you find the best sources.

Once you get your professor’s approval, it’s time for the fourth step: research. To do this, Newport first recommends that you create a list of topics, dividing them by whether they’re essential or merely useful (but not critical) to your paper. If we were to use our FDR example, “how FDR used the radio” is an essential topic; “how the radio became popular” might be helpful but isn’t critical.

Once you have this list, start looking for relevant sources, continues Newport. If you’re stuck, your library is full of resources—like librarians—who can help. Each time you find a good source, photocopy everything relevant from that source, including everything you’ll need to cite it and its bibliography. Then, skim through your photocopy. Each time you find something that seems useful—like an opinion or fact—write down where you found it and a brief summary of it. Finally, ask yourself: “Do I have enough?” If you have two sources for every essential topic and one source for most of the useful topics, the answer is yes.

An Alternate Way to Research Your Paper

One blogger recommends a way to research that’s relatively similar but has some key differences. First, instead of creating a list of topics you’ll need for your paper, begin the research process by collecting three to five good sources—which may not be enough for a longer paper but is a good starting point so you don’t feel overwhelmed. If you can’t find a source at the library, try Google Scholar, which searches databases and journals worldwide.

Second, read the relevant pages of these carefully, taking detailed notes and highlighting either in the text itself or on a separate piece of paper—then take a brief break to let the new information percolate. Third, re-read your annotations and summarize what you’ve written briefly. Include any necessary citation information; an online tool like Zotero can make this process easier. Stop when you feel like you have enough information—this should amount to about 30 minutes of research per page of your final paper.

Once you have enough, it’s time for Newport’s fifth step—creating an outline. To do so, first decide what you want to say: Spend several days thinking about and regularly reviewing your sources and notes to decide on this. Then, once you’ve decided what to say, write a principle-level outline: List, in order, each point you plan on discussing to make your case. With each point, include any quotes you’ll use from your source materials as evidence.

(Shortform note: In How to Take Smart Notes, Ahrens suggests one way to create a principle-level outline: Write each main idea and each piece of supporting evidence on an index card and physically rearrange the cards until you're happy with the structure. During this process, think of counterarguments, too: Addressing and refuting them in your paper will make your argument stronger.)

After you create your outline, Newport recommends that you review it with others—ideally, your professor and one or two classmates. Doing so will help you pinpoint any sections that are murky or need to be moved around. (Shortform note: If you’re intimidated by your professor or don’t have friends in the class, go to your university’s writing center, which can usually help you refine your outline.)

Once you’ve finalized the outline, it’s time to write your paper. For best results, Newport recommends that you do this someplace isolated and on a day that you’re not also outlining or editing your paper. Writing is a cognitively demanding task, so do it when you have as much energy as possible and can focus well.

(Shortform note: Writing your paper on a day that you’re not also outlining or editing may provide you with the brainpower you need to focus by supporting your willpower. We suffer from decision fatigue: The more decisions we make, the more tired we get of making decisions, the more our willpower depletes, and the worse the decisions we make become. So if you’ve already made several decisions when outlining your paper, you’re less likely to make good decisions when writing your paper: You might choose poor phrases or get more easily distracted. By taking a break, you restore the willpower you need to make good decisions when writing.)

The final step, Newport states, is to edit your paper in three rounds. First, review the logic: Ensure that your paper makes logical sense and re-arrange any passages that seem out of place. (Shortform note: Other writers agree that three rounds of editing is usually enough: If you edit too much, you become too familiar with the text and start to miss mistakes. In your first round, consider reviewing your logic by using this checklist, which has items like, “Within each chunk [of my paper], I introduce, state, support, and discuss.”)

Second, print your paper and read it aloud: Your ears will catch any strange phrasing or spelling mistakes your eyes skipped over. Third, do a final check the morning your paper is due; doing so helps you correct any last-minute mistakes and reassures you that you have a paper worthy of an A. (Shortform note: Editing a hard copy of your paper or reading it aloud requires your brain to process the information in a new way and thus helps you notice new issues. But this pass won’t cover everything, which is why you should consider doing your final check the night before the deadline instead of the day of. If you catch a typo but your printer breaks and you can’t submit the corrected version, you’ll just amplify your stress on an already stressful day.)

How to Write a Critical Analysis Essay

As Newport notes, in addition to long papers that require original research, many of your courses will require what he calls critical analysis essays. These papers are usually two to three pages and involve a specific prompt that asks you to analyze the arguments in your assigned texts, such as, “Compare and contrast what Authors X and Y say about Topic Z.”

The step-by-step process for writing a critical analysis essay is basically a shorter version of the process for writing a paper that requires original research. Since you won’t need to select an area of interest, you’ll skip that step and instead start by finding your thesis, which involves reviewing the assigned reading and relevant lecture notes to determine how you’ll answer the prompt. Then, skip straight to step five, creating an outline.

The following step—reviewing your outline with others—is optional and depends on how important your paper is: You don’t need to discuss a weekly one-page assignment with anybody else, but a 10-page essay might warrant review with a few people. Just be careful: Some classes may forbid you from discussing your essay with anybody else.

After that, the steps are the same: Write and edit your essay just as you would one that requires original research. With this system, you’ll be able to churn out your essays with ease—and get good grades doing it, claims Newport.

An Alternative Method for Writing a Critical Analysis Essay

Academic experts generally agree that a “critical analysis essay” refers to a piece of writing that evaluates the argument of a text; however, they disagree with Newport on how to write one. While most experts agree that you need first to understand the material (like by reviewing your reading and lecture notes) and then create a thesis statement based on it, several of them don’t recommend writing an outline or reviewing it with others. Rather, they suggest diving straight into the writing process.

To do so, start by crafting an engaging introduction that highlights your thesis, then follow it up with paragraphs that support your thesis. Some experts suggest using the following structure: After writing your introduction, first briefly summarize the author’s argument, then present your own analysis of it. Finally, add a conclusion that reiterates your original thesis.