PDF Summary:Columbine, by Dave Cullen

Columbine by Dave Cullen provides a thorough examination of the infamous 1999 massacre at Columbine High School. Cullen explores the shooters' psychological profiles and motivations, offering an in-depth look into their backgrounds, writings, and actions leading up to and during the attack.

The book details the attack itself, chronicling the tragic timeline of events as they unfolded, including the perpetrators' initial explosives plan and their rampage through the school. It further examines the aftermath and the impact on victims and the community, highlighting stories of grief, survival, and perseverance.

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The relocation, the influence of his father on his character, and initial indications of concerning conduct all played a role in shaping Eric's early years.

Cullen explores the influences of Eric's family life and upbringing on the development of his character. Wayne Harris, recognized for his contributions as an Air Force pilot, strongly advocated for strict parental supervision. Eric was raised in a supportive environment where his parents were deeply involved in coaching sports and fostering civic involvement, even though his family had to move often due to his father's military service. The writer notes that from an early age, Eric showed possible signs of a psychopathic nature, as demonstrated by his fascination with igniting fires and causing blasts, his inclination toward games with violent content, and his atypical absence of normal emotional reactions in circumstances where they would normally be anticipated.

These signs were subtle, and difficult for an untrained eye to identify, but they provided clues to a possible predisposition. As a child, Eric frequently fantasized about being a valiant Marine, bravely repelling alien attacks and employing self-constructed explosives to vanquish his adversaries, imagining himself as the noble hero in his personal military-inspired daydreams. At the age of 11, he developed a deep fascination with the darker aspects of his personality, which he channeled through playing and modifying the video game Doom, where he sharpened his abilities to defeat virtual adversaries and incorporated his own creations that were explicit and brutal.

The gradual descent of Eric into unlawful activities, the Brown family's efforts to intercede, and his growing obsession with bomb-making.

The narrative segment tracks Eric during his night-time ventures, which he refers to as "missions," and involves him committing acts of vandalism with Dylan. Cullen reveals Eric's profound contempt for authority figures, his scorn for those he considered inferior, and his frustration with a society he felt was hindering his potential by conducting a thorough analysis of his journal entries from that period. Eric's behavior was a growing concern for the Browns, who took steps to address it by alerting authorities and even organizing a discussion with Eric's dad.

Eric meticulously documented his various acts of vandalism, such as smashing pumpkins, setting off firecrackers, and his growing obsession with bombs, in his personal journal as well as on his personal website, where he also detailed the act of covering houses with toilet paper. He frequently bragged about his ability to evade detection by the authorities and trivialized the punitive measures his parents imposed. The writer is especially captivated by the growing fascination Eric had with guns and the thrill he experienced from observing explosions, as well as his consistent pattern of troublesome conduct. During the summer of 1997, his skills had progressed to the point where he was able to build and detonate rudimentary bombs made from pipes filled with explosives.

Eric's advocacy for the strongest prevailing, assuming a deity's position, and the critical juncture when he nearly faced capture illustrate his commitment to lethal schemes.

As Eric's contempt for mankind deepened, so too did his fascination with developing bombs. He made his contempt for others known and supported the concept of "natural selection" by posting tirades on his own website. The narrative tracks the evolution of Eric's viewpoint, culminating in his unequivocal endorsement of taking another's life. Eric regarded individuals as flawed entities, resembling automatons programmed for ruin and manipulation, prompting him to devise elaborate plans aimed at annihilating everything. Dylan and Eric encountered a pivotal moment in their lives when, in January 1998, they were caught stealing a van. The maltreatment he endured from authority figures deepened his resentment and cemented his determination for the day when he would carry out his plan.

Eric chronicled in his diary his aspirations to disseminate bombs across an urban area. He showed indifference to his own existence, focusing instead on those who had incited his wrath. Eric's apprehension marked a pivotal point that deepened his animosity toward those in power, cemented his feelings of being wronged, and amplified his propensity for aggression. After being detained, he began keeping a journal, intensified his trials with stronger explosives, and carefully orchestrated an attack on the high school. The writer's viewpoint suggests that Eric's resolve was solidified by his encounter with law enforcement rather than it being the starting point.

The writings and digital exchanges of Eric displayed his profound contempt for humanity, his intense desire to kill, and his fixation on Nazi beliefs.

Eric's personal diaries and internet writings clearly reveal his disturbed mental state. The passage thoroughly examines the written articulations of Eric, highlighting his egocentric characteristics, belief in his superiority, and contempt for others. He cites specific passages illustrating Eric's intense interest in acts of violence, his preoccupation with Nazi beliefs and the Holocaust, as well as his determination to inflict pain and his detached contemplation of death.

Eric regarded his journal with a reverence akin to that of a holy scripture, revealing a much more troubling picture than what his online tirades suggested. Eric proclaimed his divinity and took great pleasure in the elaborate plan he had conceived. He also demonstrated a profound understanding by persuasively demonstrating that his malevolent actions were a product of conscious decision-making, not a consequence of psychological or emotional turmoil.

Eric’s Performances and Deceptions: He found joy in deceiving adults and adeptly deceived his counselor and family members.

Eric succeeded in appearing quite ordinary, especially when dealing with adults, despite concealing a more sinister side of his character. He adeptly concealed his true nature, earning his teachers' trust, convincingly assuring his counselors, and maintaining a misleading front for his mother and father. Cullen details how Eric adeptly maneuvered through the Diversion program, articulating remorse for his role in the van break-in incident and earnestly discussing his efforts to control his temper. He misled his therapist, which led to him being prescribed antidepressants, and he was praised for his progress in a program designed to help manage his rage.

Eric was skilled at deceiving those around him. Eric derived satisfaction not just from avoiding responsibility, but also from the act of deception itself, enjoying the control it gave him over authorities and his ability to manipulate situations. He once again boasted in his diary about his deceptive acts, likening them to award-worthy performances.

Recordings commonly known as the Basement Tapes: Dylan's display of contrition and his fixation on creating an enduring mark on history.

The Basement Tapes, recorded by Eric in the final six weeks before the tragedy, provide a chilling insight into the meticulous preparations undertaken by the perpetrators, all orchestrated from the confines of his home's lower-level sleeping quarters. In the recordings, they displayed their arsenal, scorned humanity, and ridiculed their tormentors. Eric urged Dylan to exhibit more intense anger. He scrutinizes Eric's expression of regret directed at his parents with a critical eye, noting that it lacked sincerity and failed to demonstrate a true desire for redemption.

Eric regarded Columbine as a spectacle of dramatic proportions. He was obsessed with leaving a lasting mark on the world, envisioning his videos and journal as his permanent legacy. He envisioned his violent act as a masterwork that would predominantly be witnessed as a horrifying spectacle on television.

Dylan Klebold. A young man who deeply craved love and struggled with periods of depression.

Eric is frequently portrayed as the archetypal psychopath and is widely considered by the public and press to have a more significant role in the catastrophic events that unfolded at Columbine. Dylan remained an enigma to them. He seemed out of touch with his surroundings: a person of good nature surrounded by friends and supported by a loving family, yet he inexplicably participated in a horrific massacre. Cullen makes a compelling case that Dylan's severe adolescent depression, worsened by his unsuccessful attempts to win favor from a sociopathic peer, was a significant driving force behind his actions.

Dylan struggled with his introverted nature throughout his early years, often displaying abrupt fits of anger, and continuously searched for his place in the world.

Throughout his formative years, Dylan consistently searched for a place where he felt he belonged. His extreme shyness and numerous humiliating experiences resulted in a profound sense of isolation and a lack of companionship. This section illustrates how the incidents shaped his personality, deepening his bitterness and doubts regarding his own identity. A nurturing family environment and a circle of supportive friends who provided positive reinforcement shaped the upbringing of a young person with considerable talent. He excelled in academics, enjoyed sports, and demonstrated a strong moral compass.

Cullen depicts a fundamentally compassionate individual with fragile self-esteem, who, because of their susceptibilities, was easily influenced by someone like Eric Harris. Dylan longed for a reliable male friend who could provide guidance and help lighten the burdens he faced in life. Dylan noticed his friendship with Zack Heckler waning as Zack's attention shifted towards a developing romantic relationship. The events had a profound impact on Dylan. He chronicled a deep sense of yearning in his diary, directed at Zack. He provided assistance.

Dylan's personal writings reveal his quest for deeper spiritual understanding, a sense of detachment from others, and his musings on genuine love alongside considerations of ending his own life.

Cullen scrutinizes the diary entries, which poignantly expose Dylan's inner turmoil. In this part of the story, Dylan discloses his feelings of loneliness, his yearning for true companionship, and his fixation on the notion of suicide as a means of liberation. He sought to understand his need for inclusion and importance, endeavoring to soothe his constant suffering by maintaining a journal for a period exceeding twenty-four months. The reflections, far from typical high school musings, possessed the poetic sophistication expected of an experienced writer.

Dylan believed that individuals frequently trapped themselves in self-constructed confines, oblivious to the wider truths of the world due to their choice to overlook them. He considered himself part of an elite group with the ability to understand the vast cosmic connections that eluded most people. He was convinced that the right partner would rescue him from his anguish, longing for a trustworthy individual to partake in his existence. He also held the belief that the perfect girl would invariably overlook his presence. Their obsession with ending their own lives was clear from the outset.

Dylan sought solace in an imaginary realm, firmly convinced of the idea of destined partners, a notion that arose from his fruitless pursuit of love.

Dylan held a strong conviction in his uniqueness. Dylan often viewed his individuality as a burden, while his counterpart Eric saw it as an opportunity to demonstrate his dominance over others. He experienced a sense of isolation. He was convinced that his circumstances would only improve if he could form a bond with a particular girl he had observed. This segment of the narrative uncovers Dylan's profound fixation on "Harriet," a girl he had never spoken to, yet he firmly believed they were fated to be together. He became convinced that she was meant to be his lifelong companion.

Harriet held a unique place in Dylan's affections, captivating him as no previous girl had, despite his history with other infatuations. He often expressed his emotions in his journal, noting sentiments such as "I love her and she loves me," which reflected his affection for her. She understood my identity. Her perspective on life is distinct and harmonizes in a way that no other individual can mirror with my personal outlook. He wrote a heartfelt letter, conveying his regret for his unlawful deeds and his intention to take his own life. The letters were never sent.

Dylan's growing despair marked the beginning of his downward spiral, which was initially indicated by mentions of a violent outburst and a strong urge to acquire weapons.

Dylan's discomfort at the beginning of 1998, which arose from his assistance to Eric in stealing a van, signaled a notable shift. He perceived his life as lacking in essential elements and encountered challenges. This segment of the narrative documents his descent into an increasingly deep despair, his connection with a Nine Inch Nails album that depicts a fictional character's journey towards ruin, and his deeper participation in the plan Eric devised for a devastating occurrence at their school.

Dylan had contemplated ending his life for a number of months. He harbored a profound detestation for the world at large and felt an even stronger aversion toward the trajectory of his own life. He saw himself trapped in a predicament that seemed to have no exits and was completely lacking in hope. In November 1997, he acknowledged grappling with thoughts of suicide during a particularly difficult period. He desired a firearm. He commenced documenting his contemplations on executing a major attack in January of 1998. It remains unclear whether he communicated this perspective to Eric or disclosed these contemplations; however, this moment signifies a crucial juncture in the evolution of their collaborative plot. Dylan's journey reached a pivotal moment as well. He then dedicated himself to pursuing dual objectives: seeking vengeance and striving for "liberation" with a like-minded companion, with both pursuits leading inexorably to their shared end.

Dylan crafted a story centered on the eradication of "Preps," exploring the idea of homicide and viewing it as an experience comparable to a sacred feeling.

As the significant day approached, Dylan was engulfed in a whirlwind of emotions. For over a year, he had contemplated the forthcoming spree of violence, methodically amassing an arsenal and refining his proficiency with them, but he was hesitant about committing to the action. Several months before the catastrophe at Columbine, Dylan composed a piece of creative writing that eerily foreshadowed the disastrous plan they would later enact. The narrative's primary figure, a composite of Eric and Dylan, finds joy in violent deeds, with Dylan asserting his supreme control as the one who narrates the tale.

The narrative provides a troubling insight into Dylan's mind. He appeared to be subtly exploring the notion of taking a life, trying to imagine the subsequent emotional experience. Judy Kelly, his teacher, observed that the narrative deviated significantly from what was usual. She engaged in discussions about Dylan with his guidance counselor and his parents, focusing on his conduct and the violent tendencies evident in his creations. They all failed to completely understand the importance of the narratives. The chance to prevent the looming aggression was lost because the assailants' intentions went unnoticed.

Dylan's increasing involvement in planning the massacre is evident from his behavior in the Basement Tapes, which suggests he was acting on Eric's instructions.

Cullen highlights the significant transformation in Dylan's demeanor when he was in front of the cameras. In the Basement Tapes, Dylan takes on a dominant role: he is loud, angry, and obsessed with inflicting pain. Dylan seemed to harbor a deeper resentment towards the world, with a more profound involvement than Eric, making clear threats. Cullen proposes that Dylan's behavior was likely motivated by his wish to earn favor in the eyes of his partner in crime.

The writer examines the series of events preceding the tragedy, highlighting Dylan's history of unkept appointments, consistent tardiness, declining grades, and abrupt outbursts of anger. As his mental state deteriorated, the coherence and stability of his journal entries diminished markedly. Dylan's change in behavior suggests a deep-seated need to secure approval from Eric and to diminish his own fears regarding the execution of their plan.

Dylan’s Final Embrace of NBK: "Time to Die," his Reward with “Harriet,” and his Last-Minute Preparations for Judgment Day

Dylan wrote his last journal entries on the day before the catastrophic incident at Columbine. He ultimately came to terms with his destiny. The narrative delves into his psychological journey while he chases what he believes to be the supreme reward, an afterlife with "Harriet." He regarded the attack as a quest that would certainly lead to his demise, which he believed was his only chance for freedom. The author highlights Dylan's fascination with the afterlife, suggesting a profound spiritual awareness, which is in sharp contrast with Eric's view of existence as devoid of significance.

Dylan continued his preparations uninterrupted. He devised a schedule for the attack and produced intricate sketches illustrating tactical maneuvers and his anticipated conclusion. He also meticulously packed and prepared an arsenal, which, along with a TEC-9, comprised a 12-gauge, double-barrel shotgun, eighty explosives, and an assortment of knives, all concealed beneath a long overcoat. Dylan saw the impending occurrence as a pivotal moment that would mark the end of his anguish and the beginning of peace, rather than just a quest for vengeance or notoriety.

Other Perspectives

• While Eric Harris's writings and actions suggest a deep-seated resentment for humanity, it's important to consider that psychological profiles can sometimes be speculative and may not capture the full complexity of an individual's motivations.
• The influence of Eric's upbringing and family life on his character is complex, and it's possible that other factors, such as mental health issues or external influences, played a significant role in his development.
• The idea that early signs of concerning behavior are indicative of future violence can be problematic, as many individuals exhibit similar behaviors without ever engaging in criminal activities.
• The concept of Eric advocating for natural selection and assuming a deity's position could be interpreted in various ways, and it's important to consider that his writings may have been influenced by a desire for notoriety or shock value rather than a genuine belief system.
• Eric's joy in deceiving adults and his ability to deceive his counselor and family members could be seen as a sign of intelligence and cunning rather than purely malevolent traits.
• The interpretation of Dylan's behavior in the Basement Tapes could be influenced by the context in which the tapes were viewed, and it's possible that his actions were influenced by the dynamics of his relationship with Eric rather than a true reflection of his character.
• Dylan's struggles with introversion and anger issues are not uncommon in adolescence, and it's important to consider that not all individuals who experience these challenges will engage in violent behavior.
• Dylan's writings about spiritual understanding and detachment could be seen as typical teenage introspection rather than clear indicators of a propensity for violence.
• The fixation on an imaginary realm and destined partners could be a manifestation of Dylan's creative imagination and romantic ideals rather than a sign of deeper psychological issues.
• The narrative of Dylan's despair leading to a downward spiral and violent outbursts could be challenged by considering alternative explanations for his behavior, such as a response to bullying or other forms of social stress.
• Dylan's story about eradicating "Preps" could be interpreted as a form of dark fantasy or artistic expression rather than a literal intention to commit violence.
• The interpretation of Dylan's increasing involvement in the massacre planning as evident from the Basement Tapes could be questioned, as the tapes may not provide a complete picture of his state of mind or the dynamics between him and Eric.
• Dylan's final embrace of NBK and his pursuit of an afterlife with "Harriet" could be seen as a tragic result of his mental state at the time, and it's important to consider the role of mental health support in preventing such tragedies.

The disaster had a deep effect on the community, sending its members into a period of grief and disbelief, leaving lasting effects on the observers.

This part explores how students, their families, and the broader community sought comfort and coped with the aftermath of the heartbreaking incidents.

The immediate aftermath of the tragedy was marked by profound grief, an overwhelming feeling of disbelief, and a challenging quest for comprehension.

The narrative describes the intense shock and dismay that pervaded the community. The book highlights the stark difference in the initial emotional disconnection of the students following the event and the profound anguish felt by parents during a harrowing time of not knowing the fate of their children. Cullen depicts the profound grief enveloping Littleton, as well as the challenges posed by relentless media scrutiny and the exploitation of the tragedy by individuals aiming to gain from it.

Students struggled with delayed grief, shock, and a pursuit of comprehension while they gazed vacantly at the communal area near their school.

In the aftermath of the calamity, Cullen observed the students gathering in a neighboring park, their expressions numb. The once bustling setting, previously teeming with young people, had shifted to a disquieting stillness. This segment of the story explores the psychological distress and the subsequent struggle with delayed grief experienced by the students. The book by Dave Cullen also depicts the frustration of students with journalists who persistently asked about their emotions but failed to offer them a chance to properly process those feelings or grieve.

Numerous pupils described feeling disconnected from the occurrences, as though they were observers at a film rather than directly involved in the recent troubling incidents. Cullen explains how shock can delay or numb emotional responses, especially for those enduring traumatic events. The ambiguity surrounding the identities of those who had passed away compounded the grieving process for the students.

Amidst the throng of counselors, clergy, supporters, media, and opportunists, an immense surge of support mingled with exasperation was evident.

The community received significant support from local, state, and national organizations, a fact documented extensively in Dave Cullen's chronicle. Scores of volunteers, clergy, and compassionate individuals gathered in Littleton, where they united with experts who offered emotional support and counsel. The author explores the fervent pursuit of compelling stories by the press, the opportunistic behavior of some religious groups, and the difficulties in restoring peace and agreement amidst chaos and disagreement.

The mourning students' sense of disarray was intensified by a mix of sympathizers, ranging from those genuinely empathetic to those looking to exploit the tragedy. Neighbors with well-meaning attitudes frequently asked insensitive questions, while news crews relentlessly sought after students to recount the harrowing ordeal on live television, and religious groups flooded the area with literature advocating for acceptance of their religious beliefs.

Brian Rohrbough's deep sorrow merged with the carpenter's capitalization on the moment, symbolized by the wooden memorial.

A week after the tragedy, a carpenter from Chicago erected fifteen crosses atop Rebel Hill to honor the thirteen victims and acknowledge the two perpetrators. The narrative conveys the profound grief that shrouded the local residents, who found solace and comprehension in the emergence of crosses as a pivotal emblem. The book also describes the forceful reaction of Brian Rohrbough to the memorials dedicated to the individuals responsible for his son's death, which led him to remove those tributes alongside his ex-wife and her current partner.

The woodworker, having recognized his earlier error in judgment, vowed to refrain from similar behavior going forward; yet, he continued to exhibit a collection of freshly crafted crosses nationwide, leveraging the spotlight for his own gain. Numerous students found comfort and peace at the memorial crosses, where they shed tears, offered prayers, and left heartfelt messages. However, within the community, tensions intensified as some saw tributes to the assailants as a sign of disrespect towards the victims who suffered from their aggression.

Battling with rage, grappling with forgiveness, and the quest for justice and significance by victims following an act of incomprehensible violence.

Cullen explores the intricate emotions of the survivors who grapple with bitterness, a sense of duty, and their search for comfort, closure, and peace in the aftermath of the disaster. He details the various ways in which students along with their family members coped with their sorrow, including engaging in activism, seeking therapeutic support, finding solace in religious faith, and channeling their emotions through artistic activities. Many individuals maintained deep resentment, directing it toward the perpetrators, their families, the school, its administrators, or the societal factors they thought contributed to the tragic incident.

Cullen observes the range of responses, such as that of Steve Cohn, whose child emerged unscathed from the reading room ordeal at the educational institution but was engulfed in emotional distress that cast a shadow of fear over his family. He also emphasizes the excruciating journey towards resolution in Columbine, where the inability to bring the perpetrators to justice in a living state, along with the absence of a court case or conclusive verdict, deprived the victims and their families of a clear conclusion to their ordeal.

The challenging path to recovery, both in mind and body, involved addressing the deep-seated emotional wounds, reconstructing their lives, and dealing with the long-lasting impact of the catastrophe that took place at Columbine.

This section of the narrative delves into the persistent challenges encountered by individuals profoundly affected by the catastrophe that occurred at Columbine High School. The book allocates separate chapters to explore the unique distress, upheaval, and unforeseen twists that shape the healing process for every survivor.

Journey of recovery for Patrick Ireland: Recovering the ability to speak and walk, while also finding love and coping with the relinquishment of a dearly held aspiration following the Columbine catastrophe.

This section documents the remarkable recovery journey of Patrick Ireland. Dedicated healthcare workers from St. Anthony Central Hospital focused on helping him regain his speech and, as time passed, they also concentrated on improving his motor skills, even though his brain injury was severe. The story describes Patrick's determination, the obstacles he faced, and his path to regaining basic skills such as speaking and thinking. He embarked on a strenuous recovery journey to restore his physical functions and speech, while also contending with the possibility of experiencing seizures.

Patrick encountered challenges in pursuing his passion for architecture because of his seizures, but his growing affection for Laura brought him happiness, even though he was initially reluctant to ask her to a dance. Patrick’s resilience shines through. He channeled his bitterness away from the perpetrators, focusing on his recuperation and the opportunities that awaited him in the future.

Anne Marie Hochhalter endured a harrowing experience. Grasping the reality of the paralyzing shock, acknowledging her mother's death by suicide, and adopting a mindset of forgiveness.

Anne Marie Hochhalter faced further challenges throughout her existence. During her escape from the school, she was shot several times, resulting in spinal cord injuries that led to paralysis below the waist. The narrative describes the beginning of her recovery, characterized by pain, uncertainty, and profound sadness. Anne Marie faced the daunting reality of navigating life's challenges with the necessity of using a wheelchair.

Her mother's suicide added to her challenges, occurring six months after that sorrowful event. Carla June, Anne Marie's mother, succumbed to a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head, a tragic conclusion to her battle with her personal challenges. Anne Marie embarked on a journey to conquer her deep-seated depression by embracing forgiveness, making peace with those responsible, and liberating herself from the burden of bitterness. Five years subsequent to the calamitous event, she returned to Columbine to participate in the commemorative anniversary, sharing her path to forgiveness and her commitment to a hopeful outlook.

Tom Mauser embarked on a mission to advocate for more stringent firearm regulations, and together with his wife's deep-seated feelings of animosity towards the community and her interactions with the Harrises, they sought comprehension.

Daniel Mauser's mother and father each reacted in their own unique way to the heartbreak of their son's loss. Tom, renowned for his brevity, found his calling in advocating for more stringent firearm regulations and became a prominent advocate for enhanced safety measures. He engaged in discussions with the attackers' families and had a meeting with Sue Klebold to explore the root causes of their actions. Linda's grief evolved into deep outrage, holding accountable entities she deemed complicit in the catastrophe, including authorities, educational administrators, relatives of Eric Harris, and members of the press.

The personal obstacles they encountered reflected wider conflicts within society that surfaced due to the event and its ensuing consequences. But the author finds a touching reconciliation in Linda Mauser’s story: years after the attack, she wrote a letter forgiving Eric for killing Daniel.

Practical Tips

• You can create a personal reflection journal to process complex emotions after a traumatic event. Start by writing daily entries about your feelings, thoughts, and reactions to the event. This practice can help you acknowledge and work through your grief and disbelief, similar to how the community members in the assertions coped with their experiences. Over time, you might notice patterns in your healing process and gain a deeper understanding of your emotional journey.
• Develop a habit of expressing gratitude to build resilience in the face of adversity. Each day, write down three things you're grateful for, focusing on the support you've received or the progress you've made, no matter how small. This can mirror the surge of support mentioned in the assertions and help you maintain a balanced perspective, even when exasperation or negative emotions are present.
• Engage in active listening when interacting with others who have experienced loss or trauma. Practice this by giving your full attention to the speaker, acknowledging their feelings without judgment, and offering support if they seek it. By doing so, you're fostering an environment of understanding and compassion, which can aid in the collective healing process, as seen in the various journeys toward recovery described in the assertions.