Book SummaryLeonardo and the Last Supper, by Ross King

1-Page Summary1-Page Book Summary of Leonardo and the Last Supper

The Background to Creating The Last Supper

Italy's Tumultuous Politics in the 1400s

King vividly portrays the volatile world of 15th-century Italy, rife with shifting alliances, betrayals, and foreign invasions. This precarious landscape impacted Leonardo deeply, shaping both his aspirations to become an engineer for military purposes and his opportunities for artistic patronage. The peace initially enjoyed in this era was shattered by the French invasion in 1494 under King Charles VIII, prompted by Lodovico Sforza's machinations to secure Milan.

Lodovico Sforza's Schemes and the French Invasion - How Lodovico's Maneuvers to Secure Milan Unwittingly Led To the French Invasion and Ensuing Italian Turmoil

King depicts Lodovico Sforza, the unofficial leader of Milan, as a shrewd and ruthless figure desperate to legitimize his claim and protect his dukedom. Determined to remove threats to his power, Lodovico invited France's Charles VIII into Italy to pursue his dynastic right to Naples. Lodovico believed this move would neutralize Alfonso II, the Neapolitan king, whose daughter Isabella, married to Lodovico's usurped nephew Giangaleazzo, posed a threat. However, this maneuver backfired spectacularly. Charles VIII's modern weaponry and aggressive tactics surprised Italy, which was accustomed to more ceremonial and less bloody warfare. The French swept across Italy, capturing cities with astonishing ease and perpetrating massacres like the "terror of Mordano," further destabilizing the region. Giangaleazzo conveniently died during the campaign under suspicious circumstances, allowing Lodovico to finally assume the ducal role over Milan. But he now found himself haunted by the fearsome power he had unleashed.

Context

• France had historical claims to territories in Italy, particularly the Kingdom of Naples, which Charles VIII sought to assert, making Italy a target for French expansion.
• Lodovico's invitation to Charles VIII was part of a complex web of alliances and enmities. By inviting the French, Lodovico aimed to shift the balance of power in Italy in his favor.
• The French invasion set off a series of conflicts known as the Italian Wars, which involved major European powers and led to decades of instability in the region.
• The turmoil disrupted trade and cultural exchanges, which had been flourishing during the Renaissance, leading to economic instability in the region.
• During the late 15th century, Italian city-states often engaged in warfare that was more ritualistic and less destructive. Battles were typically fought by mercenary armies known as condottieri, who prioritized strategy and negotiation over outright violence.
• This specific massacre was part of the broader pattern of violence that characterized the French campaign. It served as a grim example of the ruthlessness of the French forces and their willingness to use terror as a tool of war.
• Giangaleazzo's death was rumored to be the result of poisoning, a common method of political assassination during the Renaissance. This suspicion was fueled by the fact that his death conveniently removed an obstacle for Lodovico.

Formation and Fragility of the Holy League - Exploring Motivations of Italian Powers, Highlighting Suspicions and Swift Disintegration Due to Lodovico's Shifting Allegiances

King recounts how Charles VIII's rapid conquest of Italy alarmed other powers. Lodovico, recognizing the danger his French ally now posed, formed the "Holy League," joining forces with Alexander VI, Maximilian I, and the Spanish monarchs. Although ostensibly aimed at repelling France, the alliance was marred by machinations and mistrust. Lodovico feared not only Charles VIII but also Louis, Duke of Orléans, whose direct lineage to the Visconti family made him a potential challenger for Milan. Maximilian, married to Bianca Maria, who was Lodovico's niece, was driven by the significant dowry. Ultimately, the League disintegrated when Lodovico independently negotiated peace with Charles VIII, betraying his allies, in particular the Senate of Venice, who saw him as faithless and untrustworthy.

Context

• Charles VIII's army was notable for its use of new military technologies, including advanced artillery, which allowed for rapid sieges and conquests, contributing to the swift nature of his campaign.
• As Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I was interested in Italian affairs to expand Habsburg influence. His marriage alliances and territorial ambitions often drew him into Italian politics.
• Pope Alexander VI played a crucial role in the formation of the Holy League. The Papacy was concerned about French influence in Italy, which could undermine the Pope's temporal power and the independence of the Papal States.
• The lack of rapid communication methods meant that misunderstandings and delays in information could exacerbate tensions and suspicions among allies.
• Lodovico Sforza, known as "Il Moro," was the Duke of Milan and had seized power through a coup against his nephew. His rule was not entirely secure, making him wary of any potential claims or invasions that could undermine his authority.
• The Visconti were a powerful and influential noble family that ruled Milan for centuries, beginning in the late 13th century. Their control over Milan was marked by both political and military strength.
• During the Renaissance, marriages among nobility were often strategic, serving political and economic purposes. A significant dowry could enhance a ruler's financial resources and influence.
• The disintegration of the Holy League highlighted the fragile nature of alliances in Renaissance Italy, where city-states and rulers frequently shifted allegiances based on immediate threats and opportunities.
• Venice's strategic interests were not only territorial but also economic. The betrayal by Lodovico could have threatened Venetian trade interests, as control over Milan was...

Leonardo and the Last Supper Summary Leonardo's Biography, Art, and Talents

Da Vinci's Unconventional Upbringing and Artistic Triumphs in Youth

King presents Leonardo da Vinci as a figure whose brilliance and inventiveness were evident from his youth. His unconventional upbringing and training in that city played a key role in shaping both his artistic talents and his restless intellectual curiosity.

Leonardo's Illegitimacy: A Path to Artistic Freedom - How His Birth Freed Him From a Legal Career, Enabling Him to Explore Art Beyond Guild and Family Constraints

King says Leonardo's early experience of illegitimacy was ironically beneficial. His birth to an unmarried notary curtailed his legal aspirations. This enabled him to pursue more creative avenues, since artistic talent was not bound by birth status. Leonardo's dad, Ser Piero, recognizing his son's artistic inclinations, arranged an apprenticeship with the renowned painter and sculptor Verrocchio, thereby launching his son on the path to his eventual and extraordinary career.

Context

• During the Renaissance, apprenticeships were crucial for young artists to learn their craft. They provided hands-on experience and exposure to various techniques and materials under the guidance...

Leonardo and the Last Supper Summary The Last Supper: Composition, Design, and Techniques

Da Vinci's Daring Departure From Traditional Fresco Methods

Leonardo, tasked with painting this renowned biblical scene, was forced to abandon his experimental and slow-paced approach for the expediency demanded by fresco. However, he was still determined to create a magnum opus that would showcase his unique vision and artistic talents.

Experimenting With Oil Tempera For Vibrant Hues - Leonardo's Shift From Fresco to Oils on Plaster

King explains that Leonardo, despite lacking experience with frescoes, boldly chose not to follow the traditional methods, choosing instead a novel technique that incorporated oil paint. King, referencing Leonardo's notes and accounts by contemporaries, argues that Leonardo experimented with combining oil paints and egg tempera to create a paint he referred to as an "oil tempera" – a blend that would bring out the vibrant hues of pigments like ultramarine and vermilion, achieve subtle tonal gradations, and allow him to rework areas with a leisurely deliberation impossible in fresco.

Context

• Egg tempera, a fast-drying medium made by mixing pigments with egg yolk, is known for its ability to produce fine details and a matte...

Leonardo and the Last Supper Summary Influence and Legacy of The Last Supper

Reactions to Leonardo's Painting Over the Centuries

For King, Leonardo's mural in the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie would become among the most famous, influential, and widely reproduced images in history. Despite the challenges to its integrity from initial technical flaws and centuries of deterioration, its miraculous impact has never faded.

Initial Response to Mural's "Miraculous" Power and Brilliance

King recounts how contemporaries marveled at Leonardo's Last Supper, astonished by the brilliance of its color, the lifelike details of the meal, and the sense of dimension created by his perspective. The painting was lauded as a "miracle", exceeding the achievements of all other artists, and its fame quickly spread across Italy. This enduring impact was cemented by the fact that, as the decades passed, and as Leonardo's other paintings were scattered, unrecognized, or abandoned unfinished, Santa Maria delle Grazie was the only place where one could see a masterpiece that definitively proclaimed his genius.

Context

• Over time, the original colors faded due to environmental factors and the experimental technique's instability, leading to numerous...