Book SummaryJustice, by Michael Sandel

1-Page Summary1-Page Book Summary of Justice

What’s the goal of our society and its laws? What should this goal be? In Justice, American political philosopher Michael Sandel explores how political philosophers throughout the ages have answered these questions. Then, he offers his own critiques, insights, and examples to show how these abstract theories can apply to real-life political and moral dilemmas.

In our guide to Justice, we’ll outline the three major discussions that Sandel focuses on:

• **Part...

Justice Summary Part 1: Welfare Versus Freedom

Sandel begins his discussion of the role of government by outlining a common topic of political debate: To what extent should government restrict personal freedoms to ensure public safety and well-being? He illustrates this debate by comparing two radically different ideologies:

1. Utilitarianism, a philosophy that believes government should only concern itself with maximizing public welfare
2. Libertarianism, a philosophy that believes government should only concern itself with maximizing personal freedoms

In Part 1 of our guide, we’ll explore Sandel’s description of these two philosophies and how their views apply to real-life political questions.

Maximizing Welfare: Utilitarianism

Sandel begins by discussing utilitarianism—a moral philosophy arguing that the morality of an action or choice depends on how much happiness or pain it creates. “Happiness” to utilitarians (which they call “utility”) means pleasure and the fulfillment of desires, while a lack of happiness means pain or deprivation of desires. Utilitarians argue that happiness and pain are the only ways we measure morality—morally good things make people happy, while morally bad things...

Justice Summary Part 2: Reason Versus Virtue

The second dilemma Sandel discusses is whether the government should embrace one view of morality, or avoid enforcing any specific moral code. To explore this dilemma, he again looks at two opposing philosophies:

1. Liberalism: a philosophy that deemphasizes moral questions in favor of reason and logic
2. Aristotle’s political theory: a philosophy that considers moral questions crucial for politics

In this section, we’ll discuss Sandel’s description of these two philosophies, as well as how they might inform real-life political debates and decisions.

Maximizing Reason: Liberalism

First, Sandel describes liberalism and its emphasis on reason. This school of political philosophy developed during the Enlightenment (a period of rapid scientific and ideological change in 17th- and 18th-century Europe) and still strongly influences many of our political institutions today.

Sandel explains that liberalism tries to separate politics from people’s personal backgrounds, identities, and moral beliefs. Instead, liberals argue that people should use logic and reason to discuss politics, law, and justice. Much like libertarians (an offshoot of the liberal tradition),...

Justice Summary Part 3: How to Move Forward

Sandel closes the book with his own conception of justice and how he thinks it can create a more moral world. He advocates a version of communitarianism (a philosophy arguing that the goal of the state is to create and preserve a community of citizens) that promotes public engagement, kinship among citizens, and the sense that they’re part of a larger project. In this section, we’ll explore the benefits of Sandel’s approach, as well as some practical examples he suggests for implementing it.

(Shortform note: While Sandel doesn’t connect his version of communitarianism to any specific religion, some philosophers (including 17th-century English philosopher Thomas More) argue that religion is necessary for communitarianism, as it provides the shared values necessary for people to collaborate and organize. While he opposes religious discrimination, More’s Utopia describes a self-sustaining community built on Catholic faith and ideals. In Utopia, religious tenets encourage citizens to prioritize each other and the community as a whole over material things—ensuring everyone always has enough to get by, and that...

Shortform Exercise: Reflect on Moral Government

Consider your own perspective on the role of a just and moral government.

What’s more important for the government to emphasize: freedom or welfare? Is it possible for the government to do both? Explain your answer.