Book SummaryA Theory of Justice, by John Rawls

1-Page Summary1-Page Book Summary of A Theory of Justice

In A Theory of Justice, 20th-century American political philosopher John Rawls explores the best and most just way a society can distribute social goods like rights, opportunities, wealth, and power. He argues that people can and should determine the distribution of these goods entirely through reason and logic, rather than by appeals to one’s identity—sex, race, religion, and so on. This idea is the underpinning of Rawls’s theory of “justice as fairness,” which allows for basic human rights, some degree of social and economic equality, and a safety net for more vulnerable members of society. Released in 1971, A Theory of Justice is a popular and influential modern defense of liberalism that continues to be cited, discussed, and debated by philosophers and politicians alike.

We’ll explore Rawls’s theory of justice as fairness in four parts:

• **Part 1: What Justice Is...

A Theory of Justice Summary Part 1: What Justice Is and Is Not

Before we discuss the specific principles of Rawls’s theory of justice, we first have to understand how he defines justice—as well as his critique of the other dominant theory of justice at the time: utilitarianism. By outlining what Rawls means when he refers to “justice” or “a just society,” we can fully understand the scope of Rawls’s theory and how his philosophy applies to real political circumstances.

In Part 1 of our guide, we’ll explain the following:

1. Rawls’s definition of justice
2. Rawls’s critique of utilitarianism

Rawls’s Definition of Justice

Rawls defines justice as the dominant ideology or goal underlying the rules of society—in other words, why people create and follow a society’s rules. Under this definition, justice is a generally held idea of the best and most moral way of organizing society. Rawls says there’s no universal sense of justice that all societies agree on; different societies have different theories of what’s just and unjust. Members of each society try to make specific political and economic rules that are just—according to their own theory of justice.

**These rules then determine how that society distributes...

A Theory of Justice Summary Part 2: The Theory of Justice as Fairness

After explaining what justice is and critiquing utilitarian theories of justice, Rawls then considers how to create an ideal theory of justice. “Ideal” in this case doesn’t refer to rules that can create a perfect government or utopian society. Instead, Rawls says an ideal theory of justice is one that a group of equals could rationally agree is best, regardless of their own personal backgrounds or circumstances.

The Original Position

To determine the ideal principles of justice, Rawls uses a thought experiment he calls “the original position”: a hypothetical situation where a group of equals must create a rational definition of justice. The members of this group act as representatives of real citizens in a society at a one-to-one ratio—each citizen has their own representative. The representatives are all equally clearheaded and competent, they all have an equal say, and they all have to agree on a definition of justice before it’s finalized. In addition, they must arrive at this definition entirely through rational debate—they can’t use any threats of violence, appeals to emotion, or attempts to persuade each other through rhetoric alone.

**The...

A Theory of Justice Summary Part 3: Justice as Fairness in Society

After discussing how he arrives at the two principles of justice as fairness, Rawls then goes into more detail on what these principles mean for society—discussing how each principle might influence the rules and distribution systems of society. Specifically, Rawls outlines the following:

1. Principle #1: Everyone in society should have basic equal rights, liberties, and duties.
2. Principle #2: Unequal distributions of wealth and power are just under certain circumstances.

Principle #1: Everyone Should Have Equal Rights, Liberties, and Duties

Rawls’s first principle states that everyone in society should have basic equal rights, liberties, and duties. As previously discussed, this principle derives naturally from the original position, since everyone involved would want to guarantee they weren’t oppressed. To further explore this first principle, we’ll examine Rawls’s definition of rights and liberties as well as how he says social institutions can resolve conflicts between different rights and liberties.

Defining Rights and Liberties

Rawls frames rights, liberties, and duties in terms of limits on actions: what people are (or are not) allowed or...

A Theory of Justice Summary Part 4: Living Under Justice as Fairness

After outlining the full principles of justice as fairness, Rawls discusses citizenship under justice as fairness. Rawls argues a just society should allow people to live however they like. It shouldn’t define an “ideal” way to live or moral code—justice as fairness purposely avoids doing so by relying entirely on the rational and logical debate in the original position. Rawls’s view on life in society is clear from his definition of primary benefits that we discussed in Part 1: benefits that allow someone to live whatever kind of life they want.

(Shortform note: One common criticism of the liberal ideal of everyone living however they want is that within a society, strongly opposing moral viewpoints often conflict in a way that can’t be solved through rational debate alone. For example, contemporary debates over abortion rights involve strongly held differences in moral beliefs. Reason alone isn’t enough to solve the issue—if both sides of the debate sit down and have a rational discussion, they likely won’t come out agreeing with each other, because their arguments are based...

Shortform Exercise: Reflect on Justice as Fairness

Consider how the tenets of justice as fairness do or do not apply to your own society.

What kinds of inequalities of wealth and power exist in your society?