In 'Anima Rising,' Gustav Klimt encounters a young woman under strange circumstances

How does the way you see something affect what you see? Does the public really need museums and art critics to explain an artwork’s meaning to them? In Ways of Seeing, published in 1972, critic John Berger argues that throughout history, the way we see art has been manipulated by a privileged minority to preserve their social and economic dominance. The book challenges the idea that to understand and appreciate works of art, we need experts to “translate” them for us. Rather, Berger urges us to pull back the curtain and look at the images before us with our own eyes.

In this guide, we explore Berger’s premise that, throughout history, the dominant class has used art and art criticism to “mystify” the working class. Additionally, we add historical background on both the artwork Berger analyzes and the landscape in which Berger is writing, and compare Berger’s ideas to those of contemporary art and culture.

How does the way you see something affect what you see? Does the public really need museums and art critics to explain an artwork’s meaning to them? In Ways of Seeing, published in 1972, critic John Berger argues that throughout history, the way we see art has been manipulated by a privileged minority to preserve their social and economic dominance. The book challenges the idea that to understand and appreciate works of art, we need experts to “translate” them for us. Rather, Berger urges us to pull back the curtain and look at the images before us with our own eyes.

In this guide, we explore Berger’s premise that, throughout history, the dominant class has used art and art criticism to “mystify” the working class. Additionally, we add historical background on both the artwork Berger analyzes and the landscape in which Berger is writing, and compare Berger’s ideas to those of contemporary art and culture.

Can socialist policies achieve the common good they promise? Or are they a slippery slope toward authoritarianism and fascism? In The Road to Serfdom (1944), economist Friedrich Hayek argues that socialism—centralized government control over the economy—strips away personal liberties, often leading to totalitarianism. He links the rise of socialism in early 20th-century Germany to the development of Nazism, and he warns about similar trends emerging in postwar England and the US.

In this guide, we explore Hayek's explanations of how socialism overtook liberalism in Western Europe, why socialism threatens democracy and peace, and how to avoid its dangers. We also provide historical context for Hayek’s arguments, real-world examples supporting and challenging his views, and contrasting opinions from other experts.

Conventional accounts of American history tend to focus on the people at the top—presidents, generals, CEOs, and other influential figures and their struggles, ambitions, hopes, and dreams. But what about average people? The ones who had to live with the consequences of elite decisions, and who often struggled in obscurity? In A People’s History of the United States, historian Howard Zinn aims to tell their story, providing a bottom-up view of American history focusing on Indigenous people, Black Americans, women, laborers, and activists.

Our guide outlines Zinn’s interpretation of significant events, themes, and historical trends in American history. Through our commentary, we’ll provide alternative opinions on the motivations behind and consequences of historical events. We’ll also further explain Zinn’s approach to history and provide additional context for his arguments as well as his perspective on events that happened after the book’s publication.