#388 — What Is Life?

Why does life work the way it does? Are life’s features the product of random genetic mutations, or did organisms have to evolve a certain way to overcome specific physical and chemical challenges? In The Vital Question, Nick Lane argues that genetics can’t give us the answer by itself. To explain the origin of life, we have to understand how cells make use of energy and what environmental conditions gave rise to the molecular power plants found in every living thing.

In this guide, we’ll explore the biochemistry of cells and how it may have developed on the very young Earth. We’ll explain why Lane believes all complex life emerged from a single instance of symbiosis between two very different single-celled creatures. We’ll expand on fundamentals of biology and genetics, discuss alternate views to some of Lane’s proposals, and point to the directions research is now taking to gain a fuller understanding of life’s origins.

A British neuroscientist has developed a theory that is revolutionary for AI. It’s also so complex that it’s incomprehensible to nearly everyone except him.

Richard Dawkins, an evolutionary biologist and author, Dawkins argues that biology’s focus on organisms is misguided, and that life should instead be considered from the point of view of individual genes trying to perpetuate themselves through countless generations.

Though the book begins with the premise that biologists think too large (organisms instead of genes), it ends with the surprising idea that they think too small—that genes have much greater impacts on the world than simply creating bodies to inhabit. Dawkins offers compelling arguments for why we should think about biology as ranging from the microscopic to the wider world.

Life on Earth has drastically transformed since it first began. The first single-celled organisms could do little more than replicate themselves. Fast-forward to today: Humans have built a civilization so complex that it would be utterly incomprehensible to the lifeforms that came before us. Judging by recent technological strides, physicist Max Tegmark believes that an equally revolutionary change is underway—artificial intelligence may become more capable than the human brain, making us the simplistic lifeforms.

In this guide, you’ll learn about cutting-edge technological theories that will help you better understand our rapidly changing world. We’ll examine the evidence that an artificial superintelligence might soon exist, explore the theoretical limits of its power, and speculate about the impact this AI might have on humanity. In our commentary, we’ll offer contrasting perspectives from other leading AI experts—those who think Tegmark’s view of AI is unrealistically alarmist and those who feel it’s an even more urgent concern than Tegmark. We’ll also update Tegmark’s ideas with news regarding AI research and development.

A Google engineer’s claim that a chatbot he was testing had become a person shines a spotlight on the benefits and potential dangers of artificial intelligence or AI—which experts say we’re ill-prepared as a society to address.

Artificial Intelligence could revolutionize every aspect of our lives, but only if we can develop AI that reliably carries out its tasks. While some see AI as a cornucopia that will free the human race from drudgery, others see dangers in ceding so much power to digital, non-human minds. In Rebooting AI, Gary Marcus and Ernest Davis argue that modern AI underdelivers on its promise while AI proponents oversell what it can do. Marcus and Davis are AI advocates who feel that current AI research is heading in the wrong direction, with its narrow focus on “big data” and machine learning.

In this guide, we’ll examine how the public perception of modern AI differs from reality, how AI works, and the many ways in which it fails. We’ll then describe Marcus and Davis’s prescription for producing stronger AI systems to benefit the human race. We’ll also highlight where modern AI trends are leading, other experts’ thoughts on machine cognition, and how AI development is affecting business and society at large.

Why does life work the way it does? Are life’s features the product of random genetic mutations, or did organisms have to evolve a certain way to overcome specific physical and chemical challenges? In The Vital Question, Nick Lane argues that genetics can’t give us the answer by itself. To explain the origin of life, we have to understand how cells make use of energy and what environmental conditions gave rise to the molecular power plants found in every living thing.

In this guide, we’ll explore the biochemistry of cells and how it may have developed on the very young Earth. We’ll explain why Lane believes all complex life emerged from a single instance of symbiosis between two very different single-celled creatures. We’ll expand on fundamentals of biology and genetics, discuss alternate views to some of Lane’s proposals, and point to the directions research is now taking to gain a fuller understanding of life’s origins.

In Darwin’s Dangerous Idea, philosopher Daniel Dennett explores the far-reaching impact of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Dennett argues that Darwin's theory sent shockwaves across philosophy, psychology, religion, and culture by explaining the emergence of complex design without the need for a “designer” or God. Further, he says that this theory has radical implications for our ideas about the development of the human mind, culture, and even morality and consciousness.

In this guide, we’ll explore the key themes in Dennett’s book, including:

• That evolution is unguided by an intelligence, purpose, or conscious design
• How the theory of evolution eliminates the need for a divine creator and argues that our existence is a matter of chance
• How our understanding of evolution has influenced our understanding of human thought, language, culture, morality, and free will

Throughout the guide, we’ll supplement Dennett’s analysis with insights from philosophers, evolutionary biologists, and other thinkers who support and challenge his ideas.

Scientists, philosophers, and theologians have spent millennia debating the existence of free will. In Determined, neuroscientist Robert Sapolsky says that decades of research have led him to two conclusions: First, people do not have free will; and second, accepting this fact will empower us to create a better world for everyone.

This guide will begin by explaining determinism, the theory that every event is predetermined. We’ll then briefly discuss various scientific fields like chaos theory and quantum mechanics; for each, we’ll explain why some people believe that field proves the existence of free will and outline Sapolsky’s rebuttals. Finally, we’ll explore Sapolsky’s argument that determinism compels us to create a fairer, kinder world.

Our commentary will provide background information about human behavior from biology and neuroscience. We’ll also compare and contrast Sapolsky’s theories with ideas about the human will from philosophy and religion. Finally, we’ll suggest some alternate ways to think about Sapolsky’s findings—for instance, even if our choices are predetermined, couldn’t we still say they’re our choices?