Essentials: Breathing for Mental & Physical Health & Performance | Dr. Jack Feldman
In this episode of the Huberman Lab, Dr. Jack Feldman explores the fundamental mechanics of breathing and its connection to brain function. He explains how the respiratory system works, from the role of the diaphragm to the neural networks that control breathing patterns, and describes how the pre-Bötzinger complex in the brainstem orchestrates our breathing rhythm.
The discussion covers the relationship between breathing patterns and cognitive function, including how controlled breathing affects emotional states and mental performance. Feldman shares findings on using specific breathing techniques to address various cognitive challenges, and presents research on supplements like magnesium threonate that may enhance cognitive function. The episode combines insights from neuroscience with practical applications for using breath control to influence mental and physical health.
This is a preview of the Shortform summary of the Nov 13, 2025 episode of the Huberman Lab
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1-Page Summary
The Physiology and Neural Control of Breathing
Jack Feldman and other experts explore the intricate mechanisms of breathing and its neural control. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves downward while the rib cage expands, creating negative pressure that draws air into the lungs. Feldman explains that this slight movement—just two-thirds of an inch—is enough to expand the lung membrane to roughly a third of a tennis court's surface area.
The pre-Bötzinger complex, a small group of neurons in the brainstem, controls this respiratory rhythm. These neurons initiate inspiration by activating the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. While initially thought to be the sole rhythm generator, researchers have identified a second oscillator that controls active expiration during exercise.
The Interactions Between Breathing and Brain/Cognitive Function
Feldman's research reveals that breathing patterns influence emotional and cognitive states through multiple pathways. The rhythmic movement of air through the nose sends signals to the olfactory bulb, while the vagus nerve transmits information from the lungs to emotional and cognitive brain areas. Additionally, blood CO2 levels significantly impact brain function, with Alicia Morette finding that controlled breathing can help manage anxiety by regulating CO2 levels.
In depression-related studies, Feldman discovered that controlling breathing patterns could disrupt maladaptive neural circuits. His experiments with mice showed that slowing breathing reduced fear responses, suggesting potential applications for treating depression through breathing techniques.
Breathing Practices and Supplements for Cognitive and Mental Health Applications
Feldman uses box breathing exercises, particularly to combat post-lunch cognitive decline, with sessions lasting five to twenty minutes. These controlled breathing practices have shown promising results in improving cognitive performance and emotional regulation.
Regarding supplements, research on magnesium threonate shows significant potential for cognitive enhancement. In a study cited by Feldman, participants experiencing mild cognitive decline showed remarkable improvement—equivalent to an eight-year reduction in cognitive age—when taking magnesium threonate. Guo Song's research demonstrates that this supplement enhances long-term potentiation in hippocampal neurons, potentially improving neuroplasticity and cognitive function.
1-Page Summary
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- The pre-Bötzinger complex is located in the ventrolateral medulla, part of the lower brainstem. It contains specialized neurons that generate the basic rhythm of breathing. This rhythm is essential for initiating each breath automatically without conscious effort. Damage to this area can cause severe respiratory problems or failure.
- Active expiration is the process of forcefully expelling air from the lungs, typically during exercise or increased respiratory demand, using muscles like the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles. A second neural oscillator refers to an additional group of neurons in the brainstem that generates rhythmic signals specifically to control this active expiration phase. This oscillator works alongside the pre-Bötzinger complex, which primarily controls inhalation. Together, they coordinate the timing and strength of breathing movements during different activities.
- The olfactory bulb receives sensory input from receptors in the nasal cavity that detect airflow and odor molecules. It processes these signals by organizing them into spatial and temporal patterns, which help the brain interpret smells and breathing rhythms. This processing influences brain regions involved in emotion and memory. Thus, nasal airflow affects neural activity beyond just smell perception.
- The vagus nerve is a major nerve connecting the brain to various organs, including the lungs. It carries sensory information about lung stretch and chemical changes to the brainstem, helping regulate breathing and heart rate. This feedback influences emotional and cognitive centers, linking physical states to mental processes. Thus, the vagus nerve plays a key role in how breathing affects mood and cognition.
- Blood CO2 levels influence the pH of the blood, which affects brain cell activity and neurotransmitter function. High CO2 causes acidity, triggering the brain to adjust breathing to restore balance. This regulation impacts the autonomic nervous system, influencing stress and emotional responses. Controlled breathing can modulate CO2 levels, thereby helping to manage anxiety and mood.
- Maladaptive neural circuits are brain pathways that function abnormally, contributing to persistent negative thoughts and emotions in depression. These circuits reinforce harmful patterns like rumination and fear, making it hard to recover. They can become overactive or improperly connected, disrupting normal mood regulation. Targeting these circuits through interventions like controlled breathing may help reset their activity and improve symptoms.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process where repeated stimulation strengthens the connections between neurons, making future signals easier to transmit. It primarily occurs in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for learning and memory. LTP involves increased receptor sensitivity and growth of new synaptic connections, enhancing communication between neurons. This synaptic strengthening underlies the brain's ability to store and recall information.
- Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout life. It allows the brain to reorganize itself in response to learning, experience, or injury. This adaptability is crucial for memory, learning, and recovery of function. Enhancing neuroplasticity can improve cognitive abilities and mental health.
- Box breathing is a controlled breathing technique involving four equal phases: inhaling, holding the breath, exhaling, and holding again. Each phase typically lasts for a set count, such as four seconds. This method helps regulate the nervous system and reduce stress. It is often used in meditation and performance training to improve focus and calmness.
- An "eight-year reduction in cognitive age" means the person's brain function improved to resemble that of someone eight years younger. Cognitive age is assessed using tests measuring memory, attention, problem-solving, and processing speed. These tests compare individual scores to average scores for different age groups. Improvement indicates enhanced mental performance and slower cognitive decline.
- Magnesium threonate is a form of magnesium that can cross the blood-brain barrier more effectively than other types. It increases magnesium levels in brain cells, which supports synaptic plasticity and communication between neurons. This enhancement of neural function is linked to improved learning, memory, and overall cognitive performance. It is being studied for its potential to slow or reverse age-related cognitive decline.
Counterarguments
- While the pre-Bötzinger complex is essential for respiratory rhythm generation, it's important to note that breathing is a complex process involving multiple neural networks, and the role of other brain regions and feedback mechanisms should not be underestimated.
- The impact of breathing patterns on emotional and cognitive states is an area of active research, and while there are promising findings, the exact mechanisms and the extent of these effects are not fully understood and may vary between individuals.
- The claim that controlled breathing can help manage anxiety is supported by some studies, but it may not be as effective for everyone, and it is not a substitute for professional medical treatment in cases of severe anxiety or other mental health disorders.
- The therapeutic potential of breathing techniques for depression is an exciting area of research, but these techniques should be considered complementary to other established treatments rather than standalone solutions.
- The effectiveness of box breathing exercises in improving cognitive performance and emotional regulation may not be universal, and more research is needed to establish their efficacy across different populations and settings.
- The benefits of magnesium threonate for cognitive enhancement are based on specific studies, and while promising, these findings need to be replicated in larger and more diverse populations to confirm their generalizability and long-term effects.
- The claim that magnesium threonate can reverse cognitive aging by an equivalent of eight years is a significant statement that requires careful interpretation and validation through extensive clinical trials.
- The role of magnesium threonate in enhancing long-term potentiation and neuroplasticity is an emerging field of study, and while initial results are promising, more research is needed to fully understand its mechanisms and potential side effects.
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The Physiology and Neural Control of Breathing
Understanding how we breathe is critical to our knowledge of human physiology. Jack Feldman and other experts shed light on the process of breath generation and the neural control involved in this vital function.
Breath Generation: Lung Expansion by Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles
Feldman emphasizes the importance of airflow in maintaining the body's pH balance by getting oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide.
Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles Contract to Expand Lungs and Draw Air Inward; Relaxation Allows Lungs to Recoil and Expel Air
To generate airflow, the lungs expand through the contraction of the diaphragm, situated just below the lungs. As it contracts, the diaphragm moves downward, lowering the pressure in the lungs and allowing air to flow inward. Concurrently, the rib cage rotates up and out, enlarging the thoracic cavity during inhalation. Following inhalation, the muscles relax, akin to releasing a tensed spring, which leads to the recoil of the lungs and rib cage, thereby expelling air.
Feldman describes the diaphragm as an internal mechanism that facilitates effortless lung expansion to take in air. He notes that with each breath, the diaphragm's slight movement, just two-thirds of an inch, is enough to sufficiently expand the lung membrane with the surface area of about a third of a tennis court. The resting lungs contain around two and a half liters of air, and each breath brings in an additional half-liter, a 20% volume increase. He further explains the criticality of deep breaths for reopening collapsed alveoli and maintaining gas exchange.
Brainstem's Pre-bötzinger Complex Controls Respiratory Rhythm
Neurons in the Pre-bötzinger Complex Initiate Inspiration and Activate the Diaphragm, While Their Cessation Signals Expiration
The pre-Bötzinger complex in the brainstem, comprising a few thousand neurons, is essential for producing the respiratory rhythm. Inspiration begins when neurons in this complex become active, signaling to motor neurons that connect to the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. The conclusion of these neurons' activity signifies the end of inspiration, leading to exhalation as the lung and rib cage passively recoil.
Although originally the pre-Bötzinger complex was considered the sole generator of respiratory rhythm, a second oscillator has been identified, functioning specifically during active expiration in exercises. This additional oscillator drives expiratory muscles and is distinct from the neural actions prompting inspiration ...
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The Physiology and Neural Control of Breathing
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- The body's pH balance refers to how acidic or basic the blood is, which must stay within a narrow range for cells to function properly. Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in blood to form carbonic acid, which lowers pH, making the blood more acidic. Breathing controls CO2 levels by removing excess CO2 through exhalation, thus preventing acid buildup. Proper airflow ensures this balance, maintaining stable pH and overall metabolic health.
- The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle located below the lungs, separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity. Intercostal muscles are found between the ribs and help move the rib cage during breathing. The diaphragm contracts to increase chest volume by moving downward, while intercostal muscles lift and expand the rib cage. Together, they create negative pressure that draws air into the lungs.
- During inhalation, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, expanding the chest cavity and lowering the pressure inside the lungs below atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference causes air to flow into the lungs. During exhalation, these muscles relax, the chest cavity volume decreases, and lung pressure rises above atmospheric pressure, pushing air out. This cycle of pressure changes drives the movement of air in and out of the lungs.
- During inhalation, the rib cage moves upward and outward like a bucket handle, increasing the chest cavity's volume. This movement is driven by the contraction of the external intercostal muscles between the ribs. During exhalation, these muscles relax, and the rib cage returns to its resting position, decreasing the chest cavity volume. This change in volume helps create pressure differences that move air in and out of the lungs.
- The lung membrane surface area refers to the total area of the alveoli, tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. This large surface area, comparable to a tennis court, allows for efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide transfer between air and blood. A greater surface area improves the lungs' ability to oxygenate blood and remove waste gases. This extensive membrane is crucial for meeting the body's oxygen demands.
- Alveoli are tiny air sacs in the lungs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged with the blood. Their large surface area allows efficient gas exchange essential for respiration. Collapse of alveoli reduces this surface area, impairing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal. Deep breaths help reopen collapsed alveoli, maintaining lung function and preventing respiratory complications.
- The pre-Bötzinger complex is a small cluster of neurons located in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem. It acts as a central pattern generator, producing rhythmic signals that control the timing of breathing. These neurons generate bursts of electrical activity that trigger inhalation by activating respiratory muscles. Damage to this area can disrupt normal breathing rhythms, highlighting its critical role in respiratory control.
- Neural oscillators are groups of neurons that produce rhythmic patterns of activity without external input. In breathing, these oscillators generate the timing signals that control when to inhale and exhale. The pre-Bötzinger complex is one such oscillator that sets the basic breathing rhythm. Additional oscillators coordinate more complex breathing patterns, like active expiration during exercise.
- Passive expiration occurs when the lungs and rib cage naturally recoil after inhalation without muscle effort. Active expiration involves the contraction of specific muscles, such as abdominal and internal intercostal muscles, to forcefully expe ...
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The Interactions Between Breathing and Brain/Cognitive Function
Research by Jack Feldman and others has started to unravel the complex relationship between breathing patterns and brain function, shedding light on how these patterns can influence our emotions and cognition.
Breathing Patterns Affect Emotions and Cognition Via Neural Pathways: Olfactory, Vagal, and Chemoreceptor Mechanisms
Breathing Signals From the Nose, Lungs, and Vagus Nerve Influence Brain Areas Involved In Emotion and Cognition
Feldman’s research suggests that breathing's impact on emotional and cognitive states does not solely originate from the pre-Bötzinger complex, a known breathing rhythm generator. Olfaction plays a role as the rhythmic movement of air through normal breathing sends signals from the nasal mucosa back into the olfactory bulb, which significantly influences brain parts. The rhythmic movement provides respiratory modulation carrying information to the brain.
Another substantial influence is the vagus nerve, which carries signals from all the viscera, including the lungs. The receptors in the lung respond to the organ's expansion and relaxation, with respiratory modulation signals ascending the vagus nerve, influencing emotional and cognitive brain areas.
Blood Co2 Levels Affect Brain Function and Mental State
When it comes to blood CO2 levels, slight adjustments in breathing can shift brain pH levels. Working with anxious patients who hyperventilate and have low CO2 levels, Alicia Morette has found that training them to breathe slower can restore their CO2 levels to normal, offering significant relief from anxiety. Heightened CO2 levels can induce panic attacks, with the body’s sensitivity to these levels determining breathing rate and mental state.
Breath Control Modulates Neural Activity, Disrupts Maladaptive Circuits In Depression
Disrupting Repetitive Neural Activity in Depression For Relief
Feldman's controlled experiments showed that slowing mice's breathing could significantly reduce the duration of freezing behavior in fear conditioning tests, suggesting an effect on emotional processing in the brain. This implies that similar neural mechanisms could be disrupted in depression by controlling breathing.
Electrostimulation of the vagus nerve, which is also i ...
Here’s what you’ll find in our full summary
The Interactions Between Breathing and Brain/Cognitive Function
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- The pre-Bötzinger complex is a small region in the brainstem critical for generating the basic rhythm of breathing. It contains specialized neurons that produce rhythmic electrical signals to control the timing of inhalation and exhalation. This rhythm is essential for automatic, unconscious breathing. Damage to this area can disrupt normal respiratory patterns.
- The olfactory bulb is a brain structure that receives sensory input from the nasal mucosa, where odor molecules bind to receptors on olfactory neurons. These neurons send electrical signals through the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb. The bulb processes and organizes these signals, then transmits them to other brain areas involved in emotion and memory. This processing helps link breathing-related airflow patterns to brain activity beyond just smell perception.
- The vagus nerve is a major communication highway between the brain and internal organs, including the heart and lungs. It transmits sensory information about the body's state, such as heart rate and lung inflation, to brain regions that regulate emotions and decision-making. This nerve helps regulate stress responses and emotional regulation by influencing brain areas like the amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Stimulating the vagus nerve can alter mood and cognitive function, which is why it is targeted in some depression treatments.
- Respiratory modulation signals are rhythmic neural signals generated by breathing movements that influence brain activity. These signals arise from sensory receptors in the nose, lungs, and vagus nerve, which detect airflow, lung stretch, and organ status. They travel to brain regions involved in emotion and cognition, synchronizing neural circuits with the breathing rhythm. This synchronization can alter brain states, affecting mood, attention, and cognitive processing.
- Blood CO2 dissolves in the blood forming carbonic acid, which lowers blood pH, making it more acidic. The brain is sensitive to pH changes, which affect neuronal excitability and neurotransmitter function. Low CO2 (high pH) can cause symptoms like dizziness and anxiety, while high CO2 (low pH) can trigger panic and respiratory drive. This balance helps regulate breathing and emotional states through brainstem chemoreceptors.
- Hyperventilation is rapid or deep breathing that causes excessive loss of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the blood. Low CO2 levels lead to a rise in blood pH, causing symptoms like dizziness, tingling, and increased anxiety. This imbalance can trigger a feedback loop, worsening panic or anxiety attacks. Controlled breathing helps restore CO2 balance, reducing these symptoms.
- Fear conditioning tests are experiments where animals learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an unpleasant event, like a mild shock. "Freezing behavior" is when mice remain completely still, a natural fear response indicating they remember the threat. This behavior is used to measure fear and anxiety levels in research. Reduced freezing suggests decreased fear or improved emotional regulation.
- Vagus nerve electrostimulation involves sending mild electrical pulses to the vagus nerve to alter brain activity. It can reduce symptoms of depre ...
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Breathing Practices and Supplements for Cognitive and Mental Health Applications
Recent discussions in the scientific community highlight the cognitive and mental health benefits of controlled breathing practices and neurological supplements like magnesium threonate.
Breathing Practices Boost Alertness, Focus, Cognitive Performance
Breathing exercises like box breathing for periods between five and 20 minutes are found beneficial in enhancing cognitive functions.
Controlled, Slow Breathing Counteracts Post-Lunch Cognitive Decline
Jack Feldman employs box breathing exercises to combat post-lunch cognitive decline. If he experiences a drop in performance, Feldman will take five to ten minutes for breath practice. An experiment with mice suggested that controlled breathing could reduce signs of fear, a cognitive-emotional process, supporting the idea that breathing strategies could improve cognitive performance and emotional states. Andrew Huberman underscores the importance of determining the minimal effective threshold for these practices to influence neural circuitry positively.
Magnesium Threonate May Enhance Neuroplasticity and Cognition By Improving Brain Magnesium Delivery
Magnesium threonate is touted for its potential to support cognitive health by enhancing the delivery of magnesium to the brain. Magnesium is crucial for neuroplasticity, the brain's ability to rewire connections.
Magnesium Threonate Enhances Cognition In Mild Decline
Jack Feldman referenced a study with patients showing mild cognitive decline—a biological age of 51 but a cognitive age of 61, based on Spearman's G-factor. In a placebo-controlled double-blind study, the placebo group showed a standard two-year improvement, while the magnesium threonate group experienced an average cognitive age improvement of eight years.
Magnesium Threonate's Cognitive Benefits May Enhance Long-Term Potentiation and Reduce Neuronal Background Activity, Optimizing Information Processing
Guo Song's research demonstrated that increasing magnesium in hippocampal neurons' bathing solution resulted in stronger long ...
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Breathing Practices and Supplements for Cognitive and Mental Health Applications
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Counterarguments
- While controlled breathing exercises are shown to have benefits, the extent to which they enhance cognitive functions can vary widely among individuals, and they may not be a substitute for other cognitive enhancement methods such as physical exercise or cognitive behavioral therapy.
- The evidence for controlled, slow breathing counteracting post-lunch cognitive decline is primarily anecdotal or based on small-scale studies, and larger, more rigorous studies are needed to confirm these findings.
- The minimal effective threshold for breathing practices to influence neural circuitry positively is not well-defined and may differ from person to person, making it difficult to standardize recommendations.
- While magnesium threonate is suggested to enhance cognitive health, the research is still emerging, and more robust clinical trials are needed to establish its efficacy and safety profile over the long term.
- The study mentioned regarding magnesium threonate's impact on cognitive age may not be generalizable to all populations, and individual results can vary. Additionally, improvements in cognitive age need to be contextualized within the broader scope of cognitive health and aging.
- The relationship between increased magnesium levels and strengthened long-term potentiation (LTP) is complex and may not directly translate to noticeable improvements in cognitive function in humans without further evidence.
- The ability of magnesium threonate to cross the gut-blood barrier and its effects on neuronal background activity require more research to fully understand the mechanisms and potential long-term impacts on brain health.
- The p ...
Actionables
- Integrate a breathing exercise into your daily work routine by setting a reminder to practice box breathing after lunch to combat the typical post-lunch dip in focus and energy.
- After eating, when you might feel a bit sluggish, use this time to do a five-minute box breathing session. You can use a simple timer on your phone or a free app designed for meditation and breathing exercises. This practice can help you regain your sharpness and sustain productivity for the rest of the afternoon.
- Create a personalized evening routine that includes magnesium threonate to potentially improve sleep quality and cognitive health.
- About an hour before your usual bedtime, take a magnesium threonate supplement as part of a wind-down routine. Pair this with other relaxing activities like reading or listening to soft music. Over time, monitor your sleep quality and cognitive function upon waking to see if you notice improvements.
- Use a habit-tracking app to monitor your consistency with breathing exer ...
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