578. Water, Water Everywhere — But You Have to Stop and Think
Dive into the latest episode of Freakonomics Radio as host Stephen Dubner explores the intersection of water management and societal health with expert guests Amy Kirby, Natalie Koch, and Marc Johnson. This discussion takes you into the heart of modern challenges and technological advancements in water surveillance, historical racial disparities in municipal water systems, and the international implications of water policies.
Firstly, the episode reveals the innovative approach of using wastewater surveillance to monitor COVID outbreaks, a method refined by Kirby's guidance at the CDC. This critical tool, with its wide-reaching potential, detects not only COVID but other health indicators, illustrating its power in public health strategy and epidemic management. Meanwhile, the podcast also sheds light on the unforeseen benefits from the extension of water services to Black communities in the Jim Crow era, detailing how these initiatives substantially minimized racial health disparities. Moreover, Stephen Dubner invites you to consider the nuances of water sustainability and international agricultural practices, as he discusses with guests the complex issue of Saudi Arabian alfalfa farms exploiting Arizona's water resources.
This is a preview of the Shortform summary of the Feb 29, 2024 episode of the Freakonomics Radio
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1-Page Summary
Wastewater Surveillance for Tracking COVID Spread
Wastewater surveillance has emerged as a crucial method in detecting and monitoring the spread of COVID-19. Kirby has pointed out that given that not everyone with COVID-19 shows severe symptoms, monitoring wastewater can help identify a larger infected population, as the virus is excreted in feces. Beyond COVID-19, this surveillance method can also detect other diseases and societal health metrics by analyzing different biomarkers present in wastewater.
The CDC, spearheaded by Amy Kirby, has developed the National Wastewater Surveillance System (NWSS) by adapting a previous study focused on antimicrobial resistance. This system helps to identify SARS-CoV-2 trends prior to them appearing in clinical data. Currently, 40% of U.S. wastewater treatment plants are participating, with ambitions to increase this number.
Additionally, Marc Johnson has discovered unique COVID lineages in wastewater that have not been seen in patient samples. These cryptic lineages suggest there could be undetected transmissions among humans and animals. His findings raise important questions about the prevalence and detection of COVID variants and highlight the significance and complexity of tracking the virus.
Racial Disparities in Municipal Water and Sewage Investments
During the growth of municipal water infrastructure in the Jim Crow era, investments were made across racial lines, inadvertently improving access to water and reducing health disparities. While cities modernized water systems for public health, ensuring Black households were included inadvertently protected white households from waterborne illnesses.
This extension of services to Black communities, despite the prevalent societal racism, indirectly resulted in noticeable public health benefits. The Black-white mortality gap saw its largest reduction during this period. This suggests that, even amid widespread exclusion from public services, the improvement of water infrastructure had a profound positive impact on Black Americans’ health.
Saudi Arabia's Arizona Alfalfa Farms for Dairy Cows
Saudi Arabian companies, such as Almarai, have been cultivating alfalfa in Arizona to feed their dairy cows due to a ban on growing green forage in Saudi Arabia caused by water sustainability issues. Arizona, despite its hot and dry climate, offers prime conditions for alfalfa growth. Utilizing a loophole in the state's 1980 groundwater law, these companies can pump unlimited groundwater, which has led to dropping groundwater levels and affected local wells.
The exploitation of Arizona's groundwater has prompted discussions on water policy reform. Although no specific reform calls are mentioned in the text, there is an indication of policy changes as Arizona limits new construction over water concerns. The state's new leadership is taking an active interest in resolving issues related to foreign agricultural operations. Koch argues for statewide regulation of groundwater pumping and revision of water pricing to discourage wasteful practices, addressing foreign resource exploitation and the broader challenge of Arizona's water sustainability.
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Clarifications
- The National Wastewater Surveillance System (NWSS) is a program developed by the CDC to monitor wastewater for early detection of trends related to diseases like COVID-19. It analyzes biomarkers in wastewater to identify patterns of infections in communities before they may show up in clinical data. The NWSS aims to provide a broader understanding of the spread of diseases by monitoring sewage systems across the United States. This system plays a crucial role in public health surveillance and complements traditional methods of tracking infectious diseases.
- SARS-CoV-2 is the virus responsible for causing COVID-19, a respiratory illness that led to the ongoing pandemic. It was first identified in Wuhan, China, and is a type of coronavirus closely related to other strains like SARS-CoV-1. The virus is believed to have originated from bats and may have been transmitted to humans through an intermediate host. SARS-CoV-2 spreads primarily through respiratory droplets and close contact between individuals.
- Cryptic COVID lineages are genetic variants of the virus that are found in wastewater samples but have not been identified in patient samples. These lineages suggest potential undetected transmissions among humans and animals, raising concerns about the spread and detection of COVID variants. Identifying these cryptic lineages is crucial for understanding the full scope of virus transmission and evolution.
- The Jim Crow era in the United States was a period characterized by racial segregation laws that enforced discrimination against African Americans, particularly in the Southern states. These laws aimed to maintain white supremacy and control over Black Americans through legal segregation in public facilities, education, and voting rights. The term "Jim Crow" became synonymous with these discriminatory practices, which persisted until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s led to the dismantling of these segregation laws. The era symbolizes a dark chapter in American history marked by systemic racism and oppression against African Americans.
- Almarai is a Saudi multinational dairy company known for its food and beverage products. It was founded in 1977 and has since become a major player in the dairy industry in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. Almarai's growth and success are attributed to its focus on high-quality milk production and distribution, with a transition to centralized operations in the early 1990s. The company is publicly listed on the Tadawul stock exchange, with Savola Group holding a significant stake.
- Alfalfa cultivation in Arizona involves Saudi Arabian companies growing alfalfa in the state to feed their dairy cows due to water sustainability issues in Saudi Arabia. Arizona's favorable climate conditions for alfalfa growth attract these companies, who exploit a loophole in groundwater laws to pump unlimited groundwater, leading to local water resource concerns. This practice has sparked discussions on water policy reform in Arizona, with calls for regulation of groundwater pumping and revisions to water pricing to address sustainability challenges.
- Arizona's 1980 groundwater law was a significant piece of legislation that regulated the use of groundwater in the state. It allowed for the pumping of unlimited groundwater for beneficial use, leading to concerns about overexploitation and declining water levels. The law has been a focal point in discussions around water policy reform in Arizona due to its implications for water sustainability and local water resources. The exploitation of groundwater under this law has raised questions about the need for stricter regulations and pricing mechanisms to address water management challenges in the state.
- Groundwater exploitation in Arizona involves the excessive pumping of groundwater for various purposes, such as agriculture, leading to a depletion of underground water resources. This practice can result in dropping groundwater levels, impacting local wells and ecosystems. The exploitation has raised concerns about water sustainability and prompted discussions on the need for policy reforms to regulate groundwater pumping and address wasteful practices. Arizona's groundwater laws and policies are being reevaluated to ensure the responsible management of this vital resource.
- Koch argues for statewide regulation of groundwater pumping and revision of water pricing to discourage wasteful practices, addressing foreign resource exploitation and the broader challenge of Arizona's water sustainability.
Counterarguments
- While wastewater surveillance is a valuable tool, it may not provide a complete picture of the spread of COVID-19 due to variations in shedding rates, the influence of industrial waste, and the dilution factor in large populations.
- The effectiveness of wastewater surveillance could be limited by the lack of standardized methods for virus concentration and detection, which may affect the accuracy and comparability of data across different locations.
- The NWSS's reliance on 40% of U.S. wastewater treatment plants may not be representative of the entire country, potentially leading to gaps in surveillance and an incomplete understanding of the virus's spread.
- The discovery of unique COVID lineages in wastewater raises questions about the potential for false positives or sequencing errors, which could misrepresent the actual prevalence of these lineages.
- The historical analysis of racial disparities in municipal water investments may oversimplify the complex social and political factors that influenced public health outcomes during the Jim Crow era.
- The benefits to Black communities from water infrastructure improvements may not have been as significant as suggested, considering the ongoing systemic inequalities that persisted in other areas of public health and services.
- The cultivation of alfalfa by Saudi Arabian companies in Arizona raises concerns about water rights and sovereignty, as well as the long-term environmental impact of such practices on local ecosystems.
- The argument for Arizona's prime conditions for alfalfa growth does not account for the broader environmental costs of depleting groundwater resources in an already water-stressed region.
- Water policy reform discussions in Arizona may not adequately address the complexities of water rights, historical usage patterns, and the needs of different stakeholders, including indigenous communities and small farmers.
- Koch's argument for statewide regulation and water pricing revisions may face significant political and economic challenges, as well as resistance from vested interests that benefit from the current system.
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Wastewater Surveillance for Tracking COVID Spread
Wastewater surveillance has proven to be a powerful tool in tracking the spread of COVID-19, providing invaluable insights into disease outbreaks.
Why monitor wastewater for disease outbreaks
Kirby notes that wastewater surveillance could serve as a robust early detection system for COVID due to the presence of biomarkers. Since a small percentage of those infected with diseases like polio and COVID, which are shed in feces, do not exhibit serious symptoms, wastewater surveillance can capture this larger infected population.
Amy Kirby also discusses the potential of wastewater surveillance to monitor a variety of health issues, beyond just COVID-19. Wastewater contains biomarkers for diseases like West Nile virus, tuberculosis, and influenza, as well as for monitoring societal health metrics such as stress levels and illicit drug use due to the presence of elements like cortisol and metabolites of drug consumption.
How CDC built a national COVID wastewater tracking system
Amy Kirby at the CDC took the lead in developing the National Wastewater Surveillance System (N.W.S.S.) by leveraging a pre-existing study on antimicrobial resistance. Data from wastewater allowed the detection of SARS-CoV-2 trends earlier than clinical data. To build a national tracking system, they started from scratch and, after overcoming leadership reservations about the risks and benefits, created a distributed laboratory network for sample analysis, which is not directly overseen by the CDC but connects with it. Data is uploaded to the CDC and is available to health departments shortly thereafter. Kirby expresses her ambition for every U.S. wastewater treatment plant to participate, with current participation at 40%.
Finding cryptic COVID strains in wastewater not seen in patients
Marc Johnson, from the Uni ...
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Wastewater Surveillance for Tracking COVID Spread
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Clarifications
- Biomarkers in wastewater for diseases like polio and COVID are specific indicators or substances that can be detected in wastewater samples, providing evidence of the presence of these diseases in a community. These biomarkers can include genetic material, proteins, or other unique components shed by infected individuals in their feces. By analyzing these biomarkers in wastewater, researchers can gain insights into the prevalence and circulation of diseases like polio and COVID within a population. Wastewater surveillance helps in identifying asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic cases that might go undetected through traditional clinical testing methods.
- Wastewater surveillance for monitoring societal health metrics involves analyzing wastewater to gather information on public health trends beyond infectious diseases. This method can provide insights into factors like stress levels, illicit drug use, and overall community health by detecting biomarkers present in wastewater. By examining these indicators in wastewater, researchers can gain a broader understanding of the well-being and behaviors of a population. This approach complements traditional health data collection methods and offers a unique perspective on public health dynamics.
- The National Wastewater Surveillance System (N.W.S.S.) was developed by Amy Kirby at the CDC to track COVID-19 trends using wastewater data. The system involves a distributed laboratory network for sample analysis, with data uploaded to the CDC for public health use. The N.W.S.S. aims to detect SARS-CoV-2 trends earlier than clinical data and involves collaboration with wastewater treatment plants across the U.S. The system allows for monitoring of COVID-19 spread through wastewater surveillance.
- A distributed laboratory network for sample analysis involves multiple laboratories working together to analyze samples from different locations. This network allows for efficient and widespread testing of samples, enabling the collection of data from various sources for comprehensive analysis. The laboratories in this network are interconnected, sharing data and findings to contribute to a centralized system for monitoring and surveillance. This approach helps in early detection of trends and patterns related to the presence of pathogens or biomarkers in the samples collected.
- Cryptic COVID lineages in wastewater are unique genetic variations of the COVID-19 virus that are detected in wastewater samples but have not been identified in samples taken directly from infected individuals. These cryptic lineages could indicate hidden or undetected transmission of the virus among humans, animals, or wildlife. The presence of these variants in wastewater suggests the possibility of undetected infections or connections to persistent infections, such as those seen in long COVID ...
Counterarguments
- While wastewater surveillance is a powerful tool, it may not provide precise data on the number of individuals infected or the severity of their symptoms.
- Wastewater surveillance may not be able to distinguish between viral RNA from live infectious virus and non-infectious viral fragments, potentially leading to overestimation of active cases.
- The ability to monitor various health issues and societal metrics through wastewater is dependent on the development of specific and sensitive assays, which may not be available for all substances or diseases of interest.
- The N.W.S.S. relies on voluntary participation, which may result in biased data if certain regions or demographics are underrepresented.
- The distributed laboratory network for sample analysis may face challenges in standardizing methods and ensuring data quality across different labs.
- The ambition for every U.S. wastewater treatment plant to participate may be hindered by financial, logistical, and technical constraints, particularly in rural or underfunded areas.
- The detection of unique COVID lineages in wastewater not found in pati ...
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Racial Disparities in Municipal Water and Sewage Investments
Investigations into the historical expansion of water and sewage infrastructure reveal that the benefits of such investments reached across racial lines, unevenly reducing disparities in access to essential services.
How water infrastructure grew during Jim Crow era
The era of Jim Crow, spanning from 1880 to 1920, marked a significant period of growth in municipal water infrastructure in the United States. As detailed in Truscan's book, cities were keen to modernize and improve public health through enhanced water systems and sewers. Despite the pervasive racism of the time, it was considered practical to extend these services to Black households as well as white households, since the streets were already upturned for the water and sewer network installations.
Investing in black communities also protected white communities
It was not merely an altruistic move to provide Black communities with improved water infrastructure. There was an understanding that disease carried by water would not discriminate by race. By investing in Black communities, cities were also indirect protecting white communities, as these infrastructures were a shared resource with the power to stymie the spread of waterborne illnesses.
Resulting mortality improvements for black Americans
The measures to upgrade ...
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Racial Disparities in Municipal Water and Sewage Investments
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Clarifications
- The Jim Crow era in the United States, from around 1880 to 1920, was a period characterized by racial segregation and discrimination, particularly against African Americans. These laws enforced racial segregation in public facilities, transportation, housing, and more, perpetuating racial inequality and disenfranchisement. The term "Jim Crow" originates from a minstrel character that embodied racial stereotypes. This era saw the institutionalization of racism through laws that enforced segregation and upheld white supremacy.
- Disease carried by water does not differentiate between individuals based on their race or ethnicity. This means that the risk of waterborne illnesses affects all people equally, regardless of their racial background. Improving water infrastructure in marginalized communities benefits everyone by reducing the spread of diseases that can impact individuals regardless of their race. The investment in providing clean water to all communities helps protect public health without regard to racial distinctions.
- Investments in water infrastructure during the Jim Crow era led to improved access to clean water for Black Americans, resulting in significant health benefits and a reduction in mortality rates. The expansion of water and sewage systems played a crucial role in narrowing the mortality gap between Black and white individuals by addressing waterborne illnesses. This improvement in public health outcomes highlights the positive impact of equitable access to essential services on marginalized communities. The historical context underscores how infrastructure investments can have far-reaching implications for heal ...
Counterarguments
- The investments may not have been evenly distributed, with white communities possibly receiving more comprehensive or higher quality infrastructure improvements.
- Other public health interventions or social changes during the same period could have also contributed to the decrease in the mortality gap, not solely the water infrastructure improvements.
- The text does not address whether the maintenance and continued investment in water infrastructure after the initial installation were equitable across racial lines.
- The improvements in public health for Black Americans might have been even greater if not for the systemic racism and segregation of the era, which could have limited their access to other important health resources.
- The text does not d ...
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Saudi Arabia's Arizona Alfalfa Farms for Dairy Cows
Saudi Arabian firms have turned to Arizona’s desert landscape to grow alfalfa for dairy cows, leading to concerns about groundwater use and a push for policy reform.
Attractive conditions for growing cow feed in Arizona desert
Almarai, a major Saudi dairy company, took advantage of the conditions in Arizona to grow alfalfa, which they ship back to feed their dairy cows in Saudi Arabia. In the 1970s, the Saudi government heavily subsidized domestic agriculture expansions which prompted companies like Almarai to thrive. When the Saudi government banned the growing of green forage on a commercial scale due to unsustainable water practices, Saudi dairy farms began sourcing their feed from abroad. Arizona was chosen due to its favorable conditions for alfalfa growth despite being one of the hottest and driest states.
Saudi firms exploiting Arizona's unlimited groundwater pumping
In 2014, Almarai began buying and leasing over 13,000 acres of Arizona farmland for alfalfa production, a move permitted by Arizona's 1980 groundwater law, which allowed them to pump unlimited groundwater. This law divides the state into areas with and without groundwater management, with those without facing minimal regulation. Both Saudi Arabian and Emirati companies utilized this opportunity to grow alfalfa in areas where water extraction is not monitored after a well is permitted. Consequently, the drilling of deeper wells by these companies has led to a drop in groundwater levels, affecting local wells.
Natalie Koch, author of "Arid Empire," contrasts the public response to the water usage of Saudi-backed LIV Golf in Tucson with that of alfalfa farming, suggesting that there is a lack of public outrage over alfalfa farming’s water use.
Calls for reforming Arizona's groundwater laws
The current operation of Saudi firms like Almarai in Arizona has prompted discussions on the state’s water policy. While there is no explicit mention of calls for reform in the received text, Stephen Dubner points out recent actions by Arizona to l ...
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Saudi Arabia's Arizona Alfalfa Farms for Dairy Cows
Additional Materials
Clarifications
- Almarai is a major Saudi dairy company that has operations in food and beverage manufacturing and distribution. It has a significant presence in Saudi Arabia and is known for its dairy products. The company was founded in 1977 and has grown to become a key player in the dairy industry in the Middle East. Almarai has been involved in various initiatives to improve milk production and distribution in the region.
- Alfalfa farming for dairy cows involves cultivating alfalfa, a nutrient-rich plant, as feed for dairy cattle. Alfalfa is a valuable source of protein and fiber in dairy cow diets, supporting their health and milk production. Dairy farmers often rely on alfalfa as a staple feed due to its nutritional benefits. The process of growing and harvesting alfalfa requires specific agricultural practices to ensure quality feed for dairy cows.
- Arizona's groundwater laws govern the extraction and use of groundwater in the state. These laws regulate issues such as well drilling, water rights, and groundwater management areas. The laws can vary depending on the region within Arizona and play a crucial role in managing water resources sustainably. Groundwater laws aim to balance the needs of various stakeholders while ensuring the long-term availability of groundwater for current and future generations.
- Saudi farm leases in Arizona involve Saudi Arabian companies like Almarai leasing or purchasing farmland in Arizona to grow alfalfa for their dairy cows. These companies take advantage of Arizona's favorable conditions for alfalfa growth, but their extensive use of groundwater has raised concerns about water depletion and sustainability. The leasing of farmland by Saudi firms has sparked discussions about Arizona's groundwater laws and policies, with calls for reforms to regulate water usage and protect local water resources. The issue has gained public attention and prompt ...
Counterarguments
- The economic benefits of foreign investment in local agriculture may not be fully considered, including job creation and tax revenue.
- The alfalfa farming by Saudi firms could be part of a broader strategy for global food security, which is a legitimate concern for a country like Saudi Arabia with limited water resources.
- The 1980 groundwater law was created with the intention of promoting agricultural development in Arizona, and any changes to it could have unintended consequences for local farmers.
- The issue of water rights and usage is complex and involves balancing the needs of various stakeholders, including farmers, residents, and businesses.
- The focus on Saudi and Emirati companies may overlook the broader issue of water management in Arizona, which includes domestic users and other foreign entities.
- The cancellation of leases and potential reforms could be seen as protectionist and might negatively impact Arizona's reputation as a place open for international business.
- Groundwater regulation could potentially increase the cost of farming operations, which might lead to higher food prices or reduced agricultural output.
- The comparis ...
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