What drives people to join mass movements? What makes some movements succeed while others fizzle out?
In his book The True Believer, Eric Hoffer explores the psychology behind mass movements. He examines why certain groups are more susceptible to joining these movements and what factors contribute to their success or failure.
Keep reading to discover Hoffer’s insights on the forces that shape our society and drive social change.
Book Overview of The True Believer
In a world where social upheavals are both history and headline news, understanding what drives masses of people toward radical change—or radical belief—is more relevant than ever. In his book The True Believer, Eric Hoffer explores the forces that fuel mass movements, whether religious, political, or social. Hoffer argues that these movements share common traits and most often appeal to those who feel disenfranchised or dissatisfied with their lives. He analyzes how mass movements are born and why they succeed or fail, providing critical analysis for anyone trying to grasp the underlying currents that shape our world.
Hoffer (1902-1983) was a Depression-era itinerant worker and a self-taught American philosopher and author who rose to prominence with the publication of The True Believer in 1951; the book became widely recognized as a seminal work in social psychology. Hoffer wrote prolifically on topics such as identity, individualism, collectivism, and the conditions under which societies thrive or falter. His other works include The Passionate State of Mind (1954) and The Ordeal of Change (1963). Even after gaining fame as an author, Hoffer continued to work as a longshoreman on the docks of San Francisco. His firsthand experience with the working class deeply influenced his perspectives on human nature, society, and history.
We’ll begin by defining mass movements and exploring the psychology behind their appeal. We’ll go on to discuss the forces that drive mass movements and what contributes to their success or failure.
What Is a Mass Movement?
We’ll define mass movements and explain why it’s important to understand how they take hold.
According to Hoffer, the potency of mass movements lies in their ability to harness human emotions and convictions, turning personal grievances into collective action. They mobilize people who are searching for a sense of belonging, identity, and purpose toward a shared goal or vision—often with the promise of radical social change.
Why Is It Important to Understand the Nature of Mass Movements?
Hoffer argues that it’s important to analyze mass movements because of their lasting impact on societies. He suggests that understanding the psychological underpinnings and dynamics of these movements helps us better understand why they can have such widespread appeal. Hoffer argues that if we understand why mass movements start and how they operate, we can prevent the potential damage they can cause, including oppression and violence, while also leveraging the power of mass movements for positive social change.
Why Are Mass Movements Appealing?
Hoffer discusses the psychology behind the appeal of mass movements. He writes that mass movements are appealing because they provide an answer to fundamental human needs, including identity, community, and a strong sense of purpose.
Mass Movements Offer a New Identity
For people feeling lost, ineffective, or inconsequential in their day-to-day lives, mass movements present an attractive opportunity to redefine themselves. These movements offer followers a chance to discard an unsatisfying past identity and embrace an exciting new one that gives them a sense of being a part of something important. Hoffer stresses that this change goes beyond surface-level presentation, profoundly affecting a person’s sense of their own value and role in society.
Mass Movements Provide a Sense of Community
Beyond individual transformation, mass movements provide a sense of community, creating spaces where people come together around shared convictions, objectives, and enemies. This sense of community fulfills a deep social need, providing followers with a network of support and solidarity. The community also celebrates and encourages personal sacrifices for the cause as contributions toward a common goal—further deepening the social bonds between followers.
Mass Movements Define a Clear Purpose
Mass movements also define a clear purpose for followers. These movements often simplify complex issues into clear-cut missions, enabling followers to channel their frustrations and ambitions toward actionable goals. Led by charismatic figures who articulate (and symbolize) this vision, followers find themselves part of a dynamic group aiming to reshape society; they transform from passive bystanders to active agents of change. In this way, mass movements become more than just responses to dissatisfaction: They become an easy-to-follow map for how followers can live their lives and achieve the future they want.
Who Is Susceptible to Mass Movements?
While mass movements speak to universal human needs, according to Hoffer, there are some groups who are more susceptible to the call of mass movements than others. Hoffer argues those most vulnerable to the appeal of mass movements, the “true believers,” are people who are dissatisfied with their current state but not completely preoccupied with their own survival. He argues that if someone is satisfied they have no reason to seek change—and, conversely, if someone is focused only on meeting their basic needs, they don’t have the capacity to put energy toward making change.
Hoffer identifies several subsets of a population that meet this criteria:
People Who Are Marginalized
According to Hoffer, marginalized groups often experience a profound sense of exclusion from mainstream society, whether that’s because of economic hardship, racial or ethnic discrimination, or simply a failure to conform to societal norms. For marginalized people, mass movements offer a sense of belonging and identity that they feel is denied to them elsewhere. The promise of change that these movements offer is appealing because it gives hope for a more inclusive future where marginalized people are recognized and valued in mainstream society.
For example, the Indian Independence Movement was driven by Indians from many different walks of life who faced economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and political marginalization under British rule. These conditions fostered a deep sense of exclusion from the benefits of their own country’s wealth and governance. The movement’s promise of freedom and justice was incredibly appealing, offering hope for a future where Indians could govern their own country, free from foreign domination and exploitation.
People Who Are Unfulfilled
Mass movements also appeal to people who are unfulfilled or bored. When everyday life lacks stimulation or meaning, the explosive energy and purpose that a mass movement provides can seem irresistibly stimulating—a remedy for ennui. This lack of fulfillment drives individuals toward activities that promise significance beyond mundane routines; mass movements offer not just distractions but the opportunity for grandiose and life-affirming causes.
For example, the Arab Spring, which began in late 2010, was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world. For many young people in these regions, everyday life was marked by unemployment, political oppression, and a lack of opportunities, leading to a profound sense of stagnation and disconnection. The Arab Spring offered something dramatically different from their daily routines. It presented a potent combination of excitement, purpose, and the possibility of meaningful change. The promise of contributing to a cause that could overthrow dictators, demand democratic reforms, and reshape nations was invigorating.
People Who Feel Guilty
Hoffer discusses people who live with guilt over their past actions, whether the transgressions are real or imagined. According to Hoffer, mass movements offer these individuals redemption through renewal: a path away from self-reproach toward absolution. By participating in something they see as pure or noble compared to their past deeds, they find relief from their guilt while contributing to what they perceive as a greater good.
For example, during the Crusades, many Europeans who joined the movement were motivated by the promise of indulgences—the Church’s offer of forgiveness for all past sins to those who took up the cause to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The Church portrayed the Crusades as a noble and holy war, a fight not just for territory but for the soul of Christendom itself. Participation was seen as an act of ultimate devotion, a way to atone for sins and achieve salvation.
People Who Are Self-Interested
Finally, Hoffer points to people who are self-interested as prime targets for the lure of mass movements. Mass movements often promise a significant upheaval in the social order or a redistribution of power and resources. For those primarily focused on their own advancement or personal gain, aligning with mass movements can seem like an efficient way to achieve their goals under the guise of a broader ideological commitment.
For example, the French Revolution (1789-1799) aimed to dismantle the ancient regime of monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical dominance, advocating instead for liberty, equality, and fraternity. While many participants were driven by the genuine desire for societal transformation and the establishment of a more equal society, others exploited the upheaval to seize property, gain political power, or elevate their social status. Figures like Maximilien Robespierre and Napoleon Bonaparte, for instance, began as revolutionaries advocating for change but eventually used the revolution’s momentum for significant personal and political gain, with Napoleon ultimately crowning himself Emperor.
What Drives Mass Movements?
With an understanding that mass movements rely on groups of people who are dissatisfied with the current state of the world, we’ll discuss what fuels mass movements and allows them to gain steam.
According to Hoffer, two critical and interrelated forces energize mass movements: a willingness to self-sacrifice and an intense sense of unity among followers.
A Willingness to Self-Sacrifice
Hoffer first argues that a willingness to self-sacrifice is essential for success of mass movements: Self-sacrifice represents a follower’s readiness to put aside personal interests, comfort, and even safety for the sake of a higher cause. Sacrifices within movements may range from relatively minor acts, like dedicating time or money to the cause, to more dramatic ones like sacrificing personal freedom or risking one’s life.
He explains that for followers, sacrifices aren’t seen as a loss but rather as an investment in something far greater—an idealized future or mission that promises redemption and transformation. Hoffer points out that the willingness to sacrifice is rooted in followers’ profound dissatisfaction with their lives, making the potential rewards of sacrifice seem not only worthwhile, but sometimes the only option.
Tactics That Encourage Self-Sacrifice
Hoffer outlines several tactics that mass movements use to cultivate a willingness to self-sacrifice among their followers. He explains how these methods are designed to transform a person’s perception of themselves and the world, making the idea of sacrifice seem not just appealing but necessary to realizing a grander vision.
The first tactic is to shift how people view themselves and their life goals. This encourages them to focus on being part of a group rather than on their individual differences, and to see themselves in a bigger, more important role. This shift helps align their personal goals with the group’s goals. As a result, giving up personal interests for the group’s benefit not only becomes OK, but also something to aspire to.
The next tactic is to break down complex issues into straightforward, compelling beliefs that followers are expected to adopt without question, emphasizing strong loyalty to either the movement’s leaders or its core ideas. This simplification removes uncertainty, casting any sacrifices as clearly noble actions within this redefined “reality.” By fostering a sense of extreme dedication, acts of sacrifice are transformed into demonstrations of devotion, serving both as a means to further the collective goals and as a testament to one’s commitment to the cause.
The final tactic is to reshape, or distort, perceptions of reality. It presents the current state as deeply flawed or unethical while painting an idealized future that can be achieved through the movement. This approach encourages members to see personal sacrifices as essential steps for moving from a troubled present toward a better, imagined future.
A Sense of Unity
Equally vital to a willingness to self-sacrifice is a sense of unity among followers. Hoffer writes that this shared collective identity acts as a powerful bonding agent, creating strong communal ties that transcend individual differences. This unity is often forged against a common enemy or societal ill that the movement seeks to combat or eradicate, further intensifying the group’s cohesion. The movement becomes about more than just individual transformation—it evolves into a collective journey toward achieving something monumental that could only be accomplished together.
Tactics That Encourage a Sense of Unity
Hoffer outlines tactics mass movements use to foster a deep sense of unity among their followers, crucial for the movement’s cohesion and success. These methods provide a shared experience and common purpose that bond individuals together.
The first tactic is to provide a clear enemy. By directing hatred toward a common adversary and fostering suspicion against anyone outside the group, movements not only clarify who the enemy is but also strengthen internal cohesion. This external opposition helps solidify a collective identity by defining what (or who) they stand against.
The second tactic is to keep people inspired. Hoffer says that charismatic leaders often become symbols of the movement and therefore a source of inspiration. They do more than just lead; they inspire by embodying the movement’s ideals and stirring followers’ emotions toward shared goals. Their ability to connect on a personal level while projecting confidence in each member’s role entwines individual aspirations with collective ambitions.
The third tactic is to encourage conformity. By encouraging followers to imitate one another in thoughts, appearance, or actions—and engaging them in collective activities like marches or rallies—movements embed strong conformity norms within their ranks. Such unity of purpose reduces internal strife and emphasizes communal over personal identity through shared experiences and objectives.
The final tactic is punishment. When other tactics are insufficient, mass movements sometimes resort to creating an atmosphere where compliance is not optional. Through coercion, movements ensure strict adherence to their codes, eliminating dissent by making examples out of non-conformists. This enforces discipline but does so through fear rather than consensus.
How Do Mass Movements Evolve Over Time?
We’ll discuss how mass movements evolve and the roles that different types of leaders play at each stage.
Hoffer explains that mass movements evolve over time, reflecting not just changing leadership but also shifting priorities—from idea inception to tumultuous growth to more permanent institutions and policies. According to Hoffer, these stages are characterized by different types of leaders: visionaries, loyal followers, and implementers.
Initially, visionaries lay the groundwork by critiquing the status quo and offering a new vision for the future. Hoffer argues these leaders are indispensable at the beginning of a mass movement because they sow discontent and prepare society for change.
As these ideas take root among disaffected populations, loyal followers emerge. Their unwavering dedication and zeal propel the movement forward with a new sense of urgency and commitment. These followers are less concerned with intellectual debates than they are with action—sacrificing compromise for purity in pursuit of their ideals. This phase is characterized by intense fervor as the movement gathers momentum, which demands strict adherence to its cause.
Finally, as movements begin to achieve tangible successes, pragmatists often assume leadership roles. These implementers focus on solidifying gains, achieving practical goals, and establishing order. Their task is governance administration—turning radical aspirations into sustainable institutions. This final stage signifies a shift towards stability, moving away from earlier revolutionary zeal toward maintaining what has been achieved.
What Makes a Mass Movement Successful?
We’ll outline why movements succeed or fail and offer examples of each.
According to Hoffer, the success of a movement often hinges on clarity of purpose and a short active phase—the period during which direct, concerted efforts are made to achieve the movement’s primary objectives.
A clear, compelling vision is what draws people into a mass movement. When followers clearly understand what they’re fighting for, their resolve is stronger, and their actions are more focused. This clarity simplifies communication, making it easier to spread the message and rally support. Moreover, when goals are distinctly defined, strategies can be more effectively tailored to achieve them.
Hoffer also argues that movements need a short active phase to maintain momentum. People are often most passionate at the beginning of a movement and begin to lose interest if the struggle lasts too long without clear progress toward the original goals. A shorter active phase keeps urgency at the forefront; it compels immediate action among participants while keeping enthusiasm high.
Consider the example of the American Revolution, which had both a clear purpose and a strategically short active phase. The colonists’ fight for independence from British rule was driven by pointed grievances including unjust taxation and lack of parliamentary representation. This clear purpose, and the relatively short time frame of the war, helped keep people focused and motivated.
On the flip side, the Occupy Wall Street movement, which started in September 2011 to protest economic inequality and corporate influence in politics, faced challenges due to its lack of concrete demands. The decentralized nature of the movement made it difficult to maintain momentum or achieve tangible outcomes. Furthermore, despite initially drawing significant attention and participation, the movement’s prolonged active phase without clear objectives led to dwindling engagement.
