What led Germany from a nation of individuals to a society that prioritized collective goals above all else? How did World War I and its aftermath shape the political landscape that enabled the rise of Nazism?
In The Road to Serfdom, Friedrich Hayek examines how Germany’s transformation from individualism to collectivism paved the way for authoritarian rule. His analysis reveals how Prussian militarism, Marxist ideology, and post-war nationalism created the perfect conditions for Nazi power to take hold.
Keep reading to discover the historical threads that wove together to create one of history’s darkest chapters.
The Rise of Nazism
Hayek argues that socialism threatens democracy and peace, and he illustrates his argument with his analysis of the rise of Nazism in Germany. According to Hayek, Nazism was the logical conclusion of a collectivist ideology taken to the extreme. He traces the history of authoritarian thought in Germany to demonstrate his argument.
Collectivist Ideologies in Prussia
Hayek argues that inklings of this ideology were present before Germany was established. Prussian militarism and organization influenced early German society. Prussian society favored obedience over personal freedom, as well as state goals over individual objectives.
(Shortform note: Prussia was one of the states that became part of the North German Confederation and later the German Empire in the late 19th century. Prussian culture emphasized community over individualism, reflecting an ingrained belief that individuals exist to serve the greater good of society. The concept of Prussian virtues, encompassing values such as discipline, punctuality, and order, were also influential in shaping Germany’s culture.)
The Growth of Marxist Ideas
In the decades before World War I, Marxist ideology gained popularity in Germany. Marxism rejected private property and private enterprise, favoring an organized working class. This shift made workers see themselves as part of the proletariat (the working class in a capitalist society) rather than individuals. As a result of this shift, they also aspired to be part of the organized collective instead of being entrepreneurs.
(Shortform note: Although Hayek frames Marxism as an ideology that contributed to the development of Nazism, scholars of the Holocaust say the Nazis saw Soviet communism as a threat. The Nazis believed Soviet communism—an offshoot of Marxist ideology—was a Jewish conspiracy against Germany, which they labeled “Judeo-Bolshevism.” The Nazis used this ideological framework to justify their violent repression of both communists and Jews, viewing them as interconnected enemies of the state and society.)
World War I’s Impact on Individualism and Liberalism
World War I dealt additional blows to individualism and liberalism in Germany. Nationalism grew as German society organized around one common effort: winning the war. People began to see the nation as more valuable than individuals and embraced making sacrifices for their country, whether as soldiers or workers. The high levels of wartime organization in German society demonstrated what could be accomplished when all spheres of society were directed at the same goal.
(Shortform note: Other authors agree that World War I catalyzed a shift toward nationalism in Germany, as well as other countries across Europe. Historian Eric Hobsbawm argues that such movements were responses to both economic and social upheaval. He emphasizes that this newfound nationalism often came at the expense of liberal democratic values, leading to authoritarian tendencies in postwar societies.)
Hayek argues that Germany saw itself as leading the world to a better society, where a strong government presided over an organized, socialist society. German society believed the countries fighting them were trying to preserve the status quo and prevent Germany’s organized society from being replicated in their territories. War propaganda in Germany presented the conflict as a contest between two ideals: Britain’s self-obsessed society of merchants and Germany’s self-sacrificing society of warriors.
(Shortform note: Hayek portrays the rivalry between Germany and Britain as a contest of ideals, but it was also a contest of industrial and economic dominance. In A Peace to End All Peace, David Fromkin explains that before World War I, Germany’s industrial and military rise challenged Britain’s dominance, impacting strategic and economic dynamics across Europe. Britain’s weakening industry and Germany’s advancements in chemicals, tools, and railroads threatened British interests. As Germany became a new imperial force, both it and Britain sought alliances with other powerful nations, setting the stage for the coming war.)
Interwar Nationalism
After World War I, nationalist sentiments heightened with Germany’s crushing defeat. Its society, exhausted after years of sacrificing for a losing cause, turned further inward as it tried to rebuild its country.
(Shortform note: Historians agree that Germany’s defeat in World War I triggered a heightened nationalism that devolved into Nazism. After the war, German political and military leaders instigated an antisemitic conspiracy theory about their defeat, accusing German Jews, among other groups, of conspiring against Germany. This theory, known as the “stab-in-the-back” myth, framed Jews as traitors and aligned non-Jewish citizens against a common “enemy.” This helped Nazi leaders unite society in their favor and led to the Holocaust.)
Once again, Germany’s society-wide organization was more important than individual freedom. In pursuit of an efficient organization to rebuild the nation, socialists on the left relinquished liberty as a value, while socialists on the right relinquished capitalism. They converged in conservative socialism, a precursor of Nazism.
(Shortform note: Although Hayek emphasizes the society-wide organization socialists achieved in Germany, historians point out that some Germans—including socialists and communists—steadfastly resisted the Nazi regime throughout World War II. For example, the White Rose movement in Germany openly opposed Hitler from 1942 to 1943 until the movement’s leaders were caught and executed. Some White Rose members had participated in national socialist youth groups, appreciating the Nazi party’s emphasis on community values. However, as they got older, they realized the evil actions the party was taking. Their resistance included writing the word “Freedom” on the side of multiple buildings in Munich.)
