What drives our understanding of right and wrong? How do different societies develop their moral codes?
In Beyond Good and Evil by Friedrich Nietzsche, morality is under the microscope. Nietzsche’s analysis explores two distinct types—master morality and herd morality—while examining how Christianity shaped Western ethical thinking.
Keep reading to discover why Nietzsche believed Western society needed to move beyond traditional moral frameworks and create new values for the future.
Friedrich Nietzsche on Morality
According to Friedrich Nietzsche, morality is a subjective social construction. He argues that moral systems are culturally manufactured based on the circumstances of a given society. These moral systems attempt to promote cooperation and order. To demonstrate this, he discusses two different kinds of moral systems—master morality and herd morality—and uses historical examples to explain how they develop.
(Shortform note: Some scientists and philosophers argue that morality doesn’t just result from cultural circumstances—instead, it’s a natural trait that evolved to promote survival and cooperation. Studies of other primates like chimpanzees show that their social structures emphasize fairness and reciprocity, which are key elements of human morality. This suggests that there’s a biological foundation to morality that transcends cultural differences.)
Master Morality
The first set of values Nietzsche discusses is master morality—a view that emphasizes strength, hierarchy, and ambition. This morality is based on the principles that a) people are inherently unequal, with some being stronger than others, and b) that society should be organized hierarchically, with superior people dominating inferior people. The obedience of the weak brings about the cooperation and order necessary for society to flourish. Nietzsche generally views master morality positively, believing it suppresses mediocrity while providing strong individuals with the opportunities they need to accomplish great deeds and advance society.
For example, ancient Sparta justified its dependence on slavery by viewing hierarchy as natural and good. This morality reassured elites that owning slaves was moral by telling them they had a right to control their inferiors. It also encouraged slaves to obey by teaching them they were owned by their superiors.
(Shortform note: Nietzsche’s conception of master morality was significantly influenced by ancient Greek culture and philosophy, particularly pre-Socratic philosophers. For example, pre-Socratic philosopher Heraclitus argued that all things derive from conflict. This inspired Nietzsche’s emphasis on competition and ambition when developing the concept of master morality, as well as his belief that the winners of these competitions drive change in society.)
Herd Morality
The second set of values Nietzsche discusses is herd morality—a view of morality that emphasizes equality, altruism, and humility. He explains that herd morality represents the values of the weak and subjugated in society who view themselves as good and their oppressors as evil. Therefore, herd morality is inherently reactive, responding to past oppression instead of creating an independent worldview. When society lives according to herd morality, it provides the same opportunities and limitations to both the weak and the strong, encouraging mediocrity. Therefore, Nietzsche believes herd morality leads to stagnation.
For a specific example of herd morality, consider an art school that provides the same exposure and opportunities to all of its students and forces them all to stick to the same curriculum regardless of their talent. According to Nietschze’s argument, this art school is much more likely to produce mediocre works of art compared to a school that provides more opportunities to and places fewer limits on its talented students.
(Shortform note: Nietzsche’s critique of herd morality follows an individualist line of thought, arguing against limiting individual freedoms for a perceived collective good. Other individualist thinkers like Ayn Rand make similar arguments. Rand argued for objectivist ethics, or the view that actions are moral if they promote self-interest—and immoral if they’re altruistic. This is because she views self-preservation as the highest virtue, and self-interested acts as aligned with that virtue. Putting the good of others over personal interests and restricting people from pursuing their desires goes against this virtue and is therefore immoral. Crucially, while Nietzsche and Rand both have individualist viewpoints, Rand ties hers to an objective moral system while Nietzsche rejects all “objective” moralities.)
Christian Morality
Nietzsche’s primary example of herd morality is Christianity. He explains that Christian morality developed in response to the pagan, individual morality of ancient Rome. Many early Christians were enslaved people who resented their oppressors. They therefore viewed everything the Romans enjoyed as evil and everything opposite as good. For example, Romans had wealth and power while Christians didn’t, so Christian morality says asceticism is good while seeking wealth and power is evil. Romans embraced hedonistic pleasures like food and sex, so Christian morality says hedonism is immoral while temperance is good.
(Shortform note: Nietzsche’s critique of Christianity as a “herd morality” born out of resentment was unique for the time. While plenty of Nietzsche’s contemporaries critiqued Christianity, they often used different arguments. Many focused on trying to disprove Christian doctrine through rational arguments and scientific evidence—arguing Darwin’s theory of natural selection disproved the Christian theory of intelligent design, for example. Others, like 19th century German economist Karl Marx, critiqued Christianity as a tool used by the elite to control the exploited masses. In comparison, Nietzsche critiques the psychological and historical elements of Christianity.)
The Future of Morality
After explaining the subjective nature of morality, Nietzsche argues that Western society must replace its dominant Christian morality. We’ll explain why he thinks this is the case and how he suggests his readers go about this project.
According to Nietzsche, Christian morality (as a type of herd morality) is stagnant and nihilistic. It’s stagnant because its emphasis on equality and restraint promotes mediocrity—the uniquely strong and capable are often considered evil if they dominate others or embrace worldly pleasures in their pursuit of greatness. This means society will stand in their way and try to prevent them from ever pursuing greatness in the first place. Nietzsche believes Christian morality is nihilistic because it views everything that happens in the material world as insignificant, instead focusing on a hypothetical afterlife.
(Shortform note: 20th century German theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer argued that a truly just Christianity is not and cannot be nihilistic about worldly affairs. He explained that while earthly affairs might be less important than salvation and the afterlife, they’re important nonetheless. This is because when the church abandons or gives up on worldly affairs, they essentially give up on salvation too—they leave people to their own fates instead of intervening to help them find God and save their souls. Therefore, he believes Christians must reject the kind of nihilism Nietzsche discusses in favor of active participation in and concern for worldly affairs.)
The Call to Action
Nietzsche closes out his argument by calling for his readers to uncover and challenge old, flawed prejudices and values in both philosophy and morality. He believes that Western society is on the cusp of a new morality, arguing that Christian morality can’t keep up with modern social and technological advances. Therefore, he says, they must create a new morality that will allow humanity to advance and improve—in other words, society must go beyond its existing conceptions of good and evil. He doesn’t provide a template for this new morality, believing it’s up to open-minded individuals to create it.
(Shortform note: Nietzsche further elaborates on the tenets of a new morality in his later works. In Thus Spoke Zarathustra, he argues that people must live in a way that contributes the most to human evolution—developing their unique strengths and talents and then passing them on to the next generation so they can become greater and greater. To accomplish this, Nietzsche explains that people must act in self-interest, not concerning themselves with what might be bad or undesirable for other people. They also must become self-sufficient, never allowing others to do things they could do for themselves.)
