What is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences? Are there truly different types of intelligence beyond a single IQ score? Is there a scientific basis for the theory?
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences challenges the traditional view that intelligence is a single trait. In his book Frames of Mind, Gardner proposes that humans possess several distinct intelligences, each handling different kinds of information and problem-solving abilities.
Read on to understand Gardner’s theory and consider how your brain might be wired for unique forms of brilliance that standard IQ tests never measure.
Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences
What is Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences? In his book, he begins by presenting his concept of what intelligence is—or rather, what an intelligence is, since he says that there are multiple intelligences. An intelligence is a person’s capacity to understand a certain kind of information and then use that information to solve problems. An intelligence also gives someone the potential to find or invent new problems, allowing them to create new knowledge by solving those problems.
This definition is in line with the commonly understood definition of intelligence. However, this common definition posits that intelligence is a single trait, meaning each person has a certain level of general intelligence that they use to understand and apply every kind of information. Gardner dissents to this, arguing that there are numerous intelligences, each handling different kinds of information, and that each person has all of those intelligences to varying degrees.
For example, included in Gardner’s seven intelligences is logical-mathematical intelligence. As the name suggests, people use this intelligence to solve mathematical problems. People also use it to create or discover new information, such as when Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented calculus—a collection of new mathematical functions with countless practical applications.
(Shortform note: General intelligence—also known as IQ, the “g factor,” or simply “intelligence”—is a theoretical mental capacity that affects a person’s performance across all types of cognitive tasks. In 1904, psychologist Charles Spearman noted that people who did exceptionally well on one area of an intelligence test tended to do relatively well on the test as a whole. He concluded that intelligence is based on two factors: a specific factor (s) that describes aptitude in a particular area such as math, and the aforementioned general factor (g). Although this theory predates Frames of Mind by some 80 years, researchers are still debating which model of intelligence is correct.)
We’ll start by going over Gardner’s criteria for identifying a type of intelligence. We’ll then discuss how the physical structure of the brain supports the theory of multiple intelligences.
| Debate Over Multiple Intelligence Theory Even among people who agree that there are multiple kinds of intelligence, there’s a great deal of debate over what exactly constitutes an intelligence and how many intelligences really exist. For example, Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence—proposed in 1985, just two years after Frames of Mind was published—represents a middle ground between the traditional idea of general intelligence and Gardner’s theory. While Sternberg agrees with Gardner that traditional definitions of intelligence were too narrow and failed to capture the full range of human cognitive abilities, he says that Gardner had gone too far and overdefined intelligence instead. Sternberg argues that many of the things Gardner identifies as intelligences—such as musical ability—are better understood as talents or skills rather than as fundamental forms of intelligence. Instead, Sternberg proposes that intelligence can be understood as the combination of three critical abilities: analytical intelligence (traditional academic problem-solving), creative intelligence (the ability to deal with novel situations and generate innovative solutions), and practical intelligence (the capacity to adapt to real-world situations and solve practical problems). A person’s natural talents and skills, then, reflect how intelligent they are in each of those three ways. |
The Characteristics of Intelligence
Gardner presents some criteria for identifying a form of intelligence. He emphasizes that these criteria are not rigid requirements, but rather guidelines for evaluating potential intelligences.
Gardner’s key criteria include:
1) A unique core function or set of functions. To qualify as a form of intelligence, it must handle a task or tasks that are completely separate from those handled by other forms of intelligence. For instance, choosing the right words is a core function of linguistic intelligence—no other type of intelligence can help you write a poem or find the right words to describe an experience you’ve had.
2) The ability to be isolated. Since each intelligence is distinct, Gardner says that it should be possible for changes to the brain to affect one form of intelligence without impacting any others. For example, damage to certain areas of the brain can cause dyscalculia (difficulty understanding and processing numbers) without hindering other abilities. Another way to think about this criterion is that each type of intelligence must come from specific, identifiable parts of the brain.
3) Evolutionary and developmental history. Gardner says that all types of intelligence originate from a person’s biology and neurology. This has two significant implications: First, humans as a species have evolved to possess these intelligences, just as we’ve evolved to have thumbs. Second, on an individual level, the intelligences become more developed as a person’s brain develops. Therefore, it should be possible (at least in theory) to trace each intelligence from its evolutionary roots to its fully developed state in an adult human.
For example, leadership is one expression of interpersonal intelligence, and we can see hierarchical behavior (leaders and followers) in animals ranging from wolves to bees. Theoretically, scientists could find the first species to ever display leadership behavior, and follow the evolution of that behavior up until modern humans. Furthermore, child psychologists can chart how leadership skills develop in an individual, starting from how toddlers and young children interact with their peers while doing activities together. Therefore, it should be theoretically possible to create a timeline of interpersonal intelligence from its very beginnings in the distant past to its present expression in modern-day people.
4) The existence of prodigies or “geniuses.” For every type of intelligence, there will be a small number of people who are exceptionally intelligent in that way, while developing normally in all other ways. For example, someone who’s extremely good with numbers won’t necessarily be extremely good with words, and vice versa.
5) The tendency to be encoded in symbols. Gardner says that humans naturally develop symbol systems to record and share information, such as the way we encode linguistic information by developing letters and arranging them into words. It logically follows that most forms of intelligence will have specific sets of symbols associated with them.
Intelligences Are Abstract and Subjective
Gardner adds that identifying an intelligence is not a purely scientific process. This is because not all of his criteria have clear measurements and benchmarks—for instance, there’s no tool to scientifically measure musical ability, and no way to definitively say whether someone is a musical prodigy.
Because of the abstract nature of intelligences, identifying one always involves some degree of personal judgment. Gardner thus argues that it’s important for researchers to publicize their evidence and reasoning when identifying a form of intelligence. This allows other researchers to review their work and challenge their conclusions as needed.
Finally, Gardner cautions against treating intelligences as tangible, measurable entities. He reminds readers that “intelligences” are merely constructs; they’re concepts that help people discuss cognitive processes and abilities, but they don’t describe real, concrete things in nature.
How Brain Structure Supports Multiple Intelligence Theory
Now that we’ve discussed the abstract side of intelligences, let’s examine their physiological aspects. Gardner argues that the brain’s structure and functioning supports his concept of multiple, distinct intelligences.
At the microscopic level, the cerebral cortex—where conscious thought and reasoning occur—is organized into segments that each respond to specific stimuli. This means that, for instance, there are certain clusters of brain cells that process numbers (mathematical information), while different clusters of cells process words (linguistic information).
On a larger scale, different regions of the brain are associated with distinct cognitive functions: Scans have shown that different areas of the brain activate in response to, for instance, intellectual problems as opposed to emotional stimuli. This is also why damage to specific areas of the brain can negatively affect certain abilities such as math skills while leaving other skills intact.
To illustrate this principle with a metaphor, you could view intelligences as behaving like components inside a computer: The CPU reads and carries out instructions so the computer can function, while the GPU renders graphics so you can see what’s happening on your monitor. The CPU and GPU have distinct functions, but they come together with other components to create a working computer. In the same way, your intelligences come together with other mental abilities and processes to create a working mind.
| The Three “Levels” of the Human Brain Although he talks at length about brain structure and functions, Gardner is specifically concerned with conscious thought and problem-solving, so he focuses only on the parts of the brain that deal with those functions. In Behave, neurologist Robert Sapolsky gives a more complete overview, explaining the three major areas or “levels” of the brain according to the Triune Model. These levels are organized both in terms of physical location and when they evolved—the model suggests that each new level of the brain was literally built on top of the older ones as animals evolved. Neocortex: The neocortex, which is the outermost layer of the brain, is responsible for higher-order thinking, including rational thought, planning, language, abstract reasoning, and conscious decision-making. This is the most newly evolved of the three levels, found only in humans and some of our closest primate relatives. Limbic System: The limbic system is the emotional center of the brain; as such, it deals with feelings, memories, motivation, and social bonding. Key structures include the amygdala (emotion processing, particularly fear) and hippocampus (memory formation). This is older than the neocortex, and can be found in all mammals. Brainstem (or Reptilian Complex): The brainstem is the oldest and innermost part of the brain. It handles basic survival functions such as breathing, heart rate, sleep cycles, and fight-or-flight responses. This region is found in all mammals and reptiles. Modern neuroscience shows that these brain regions are more overlapped, and their functions more interconnected, than neurologists originally thought. Still, the Triune Model is useful as a simplified overview of the brain’s structure and major functions. |
