What drives philosophers to create their influential works? Why do different societies develop opposing views of morality?
In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche challenges traditional Western philosophy and morality. He argues that objective truth doesn’t exist and that moral systems simply reflect the needs of different societies. His provocative style and bold claims aim to shake readers from their conventional beliefs.
Read on for an exploration of Nietzsche’s radical critique of Western thought and his vision for humanity’s moral future.
Overview of Beyond Good and Evil by Friedrich Nietzsche
According to 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, the entire philosophical and religious canon is a bunch of collective delusions. In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche constructs this argument with logical premises, insults toward his peers, and challenges to the assumptions underlying Western thought. He then offers an alternative to conventional philosophy and morality: a worldview that promotes ambition, competition, and domination. In our overview, we’ll outline Nietzsche’s arguments in four parts:
- Part 1: The Problem With Philosophy outlines Nietzsche’s critique of conventional philosophy—that it purports to be objective.
- Part 2: The Truth About Philosophy discusses what Nietzsche believes is the true purpose of philosophy.
- Part 3: The Problem With Morality explains Nietzsche’s view that morality is subjective.
- Part 4: Looking to the Future covers Nietzsche’s call to action for intellectuals—to replace Christian morality with a new, individualistic morality.
(Shortform note: Nietzsche’s works stand out from that of other philosophers because of his provocative tone and literary style. Unlike conventional philosophy, which often employs measured, formal language, Nietzsche freely and harshly critiques his intellectual opponents on both a personal and academic level. He also uses less logic compared to other philosophers, focusing more on declaring bold truths than carefully backing up his arguments. Nietzsche used this approach to shock and provoke his readers into reevaluating their beliefs.)
Part 1: The Problem With Philosophy
Nietzsche opens Beyond Good and Evil with a critique of existing philosophy. He argues that the entire Western philosophical canon is dogmatic—that is, it’s based on a major unprovable assumption. Part 1 of our overview will explain the major assumption behind philosophy, as well as Nietzsche’s challenge to it.
The Major Assumption: Truth Exists
Nietzsche explains that the major assumption underlying the Western philosophical canon is the belief in objective truth, or truth according to a universal standard that doesn’t rely on anyone’s individual perspective. For centuries, philosophers framed their work as attempts to discover this truth. They tried to avoid using their subjective perspectives and instead used standards they believed were objective, like reason and logic.
For example, 17th-century French philosopher René Descartes’s Meditations on First Philosophy attempts to prove the existence of God and the soul. To ensure he remains objective, Descartes refuses to use any of his subjective past experiences or perceptions in this philosophical project until he can objectively prove they’re reliable. Without experience or perceptions, Descartes can at first only be objectively certain of one thing: I think, therefore I am. In other words, he has to exist because he thinks, and you can’t think if you don’t exist.
Challenging the Major Assumption
Nietzsche argues that humans can’t obtain objective truth—all philosophy comes from subjective perspectives. He explains that human thoughts can’t exist independently of our perceptions, beliefs, and opinions, which come from our culture and values. We can’t appeal to an “objective standard” like logic, reason, or cause and effect because we all have differing beliefs and opinions about what those concepts mean.
For example, Descartes’s “I think, therefore I am” relies on subjectivity. His understanding of what it means to think or exist, and even his understanding of the self (“I”), all come from his subjective experiences. He learned what these words and ideas meant from the specific perspective of his society and culture, not from a universal standard.
Part 2: The Reality of Philosophy
After showing that the search for objective truth is impossible, Nietzsche argues that philosophers don’t even want to find objective truth. In reality, they’re motivated by a subconscious desire to exercise power over others. Part 2 of our overview will discuss this desire—which Nietzsche calls the will to power—and how he applies it to philosophy.
The Will to Power
Nietzsche describes a hypothetical force he calls the will to power: a living thing’s desire to exercise its strength on others and its environment. He suggests that the will to power is the basis for all living things’ behaviors, from simple acts of self-preservation to complex decision-making. For example, a rabbit eating grass exercises its strength by dominating the plant and impacting the ecosystem. In humans, the will to power inspires people to create, dominate others, and define themselves as unique individuals. An artist creating a painting exercises strength by influencing her peers with her art and impacting her society’s culture—while also defining her unique place within it.
Philosophy and the Will to Power
According to Nietzsche, philosophers are motivated by a subconscious will to power—specifically, their desire to exert power over knowledge. They create their works to impose their beliefs on others and shape society’s ideas of what’s moral, true, or wise in a way that benefits them. Nietzsche explains that this is why philosophy often reflects the personality of its author: Philosophers tend to shape intellectual discourse in a way that suits their strengths.
For example, 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s works massively influenced how people understood and talked about philosophy. Nietzsche suggests that this influence offered Kant power over knowledge. His works convinced others to adopt his values, while people who were influenced by him or who engaged with his ideas had to adopt his precise, structured, and organized writing style. This made philosophical discourse overall better suited to Kant’s strengths.
Part 3: The Problem With Morality
After establishing the delusions of philosophers and revealing their true motives, Nietzsche turns to the subject of morality. He argues that moral systems are culturally constructed based on the circumstances of a given society. These moral systems attempt to promote cooperation and order. To demonstrate this, he discusses two different kinds of moral systems—master morality and herd morality—and uses historical examples to explain how they develop.
Master Morality
The first set of values Nietzsche discusses is master morality—a view that emphasizes strength, hierarchy, and ambition. This morality is based on the principles that a) people are inherently unequal, with some being stronger than others, and b) that society should be organized hierarchically, with superior people dominating inferior people. The obedience of the weak brings about the cooperation and order necessary for society to flourish. Nietzsche generally views master morality positively, believing it suppresses mediocrity while providing strong individuals with the opportunities they need to accomplish great deeds and advance society.
For example, ancient Sparta justified its dependence on slavery by viewing hierarchy as natural and good. This morality reassured elites that owning slaves was moral by telling them they had a right to control their inferiors. It also encouraged slaves to obey by teaching them they were owned by their superiors.
Herd Morality
The second set of values Nietzsche discusses is herd morality—a view of morality that emphasizes equality, altruism, and humility. He explains that herd morality represents the values of the weak and subjugated in society who view themselves as good and their oppressors as evil. Therefore, herd morality is inherently reactive, responding to past oppression instead of creating an independent worldview. When society lives according to herd morality, it provides the same opportunities and limitations to both the weak and the strong, encouraging mediocrity. Therefore, Nietzsche believes herd morality leads to stagnation.
For a specific example of herd morality, consider an art school that provides the same exposure and opportunities to all of its students and forces them all to stick to the same curriculum regardless of their talent. According to Nietschze’s argument, this art school is much more likely to produce mediocre works of art compared to a school that provides more opportunities to and places fewer limits on its talented students.
Christian Morality
Nietzsche’s primary example of herd morality is Christianity. He explains that Christian morality developed in response to the pagan, individual morality of ancient Rome. Many early Christians were enslaved people who resented their oppressors. They therefore viewed everything the Romans enjoyed as evil and everything opposite as good. For example, Romans had wealth and power while Christians didn’t, so Christian morality says asceticism is good while seeking wealth and power is evil. Romans embraced hedonistic pleasures like food and sex, so Christian morality says hedonism is immoral while temperance is good.
Part 4: Looking to the Future of Morality
After explaining the subjective nature of morality, Nietzsche argues that Western society must replace its dominant Christian morality. Part four of our overview will explain why he thinks this is the case and how he suggests his readers go about this project.
The Problem With Christianity
According to Nietzsche, Christian morality (as a type of herd morality) is stagnant and nihilistic. It’s stagnant because its emphasis on equality and restraint promotes mediocrity—the uniquely strong and capable are often considered evil if they dominate others or embrace worldly pleasures in their pursuit of greatness. This means society will stand in their way and try to prevent them from ever pursuing greatness in the first place. Nietzsche believes Christian morality is nihilistic because it views everything that happens in the material world as insignificant, instead focusing on a hypothetical afterlife.
The Call to Action
Nietzsche closes out his argument by calling for his readers to uncover and challenge old, flawed prejudices and values in both philosophy and morality. He believes that Western society is on the cusp of a new morality, arguing that Christian morality can’t keep up with modern social and technological advances. Therefore, he says, they must create a new morality that will allow humanity to advance and improve—in other words, society must go beyond its existing conceptions of good and evil. He doesn’t provide a template for this new morality, believing it’s up to open-minded individuals to create it.
Exercise: Consider Nietzsche’s Critiques
Reflect on how Nietzsche’s critiques of Western philosophy and morality compare to your beliefs.
- Do you believe reason and logic are subjective concepts rooted in culture (as Nietzsche argues), or do you think they have fixed, universal meanings? How so?
- Have you read any philosophy that seemed to reveal more about its author than it did about the true nature of reality? What did it reveal?
- Do you agree with Nietzsche’s claim that equality promotes mediocrity? Why or why not?
