What drives people to join social movements? What makes individuals willing to sacrifice everything for a cause?
In The True Believer, Eric Hoffer explores what causes mass social movements to start and gain momentum. He examines the psychological factors that lead people to dedicate themselves to a collective cause, often at great personal cost.
Keep reading to learn how to start a social movement by understanding the two powerful forces behind them.
How Social Movements Start
In his book, Hoffer lays out what causes mass movements in society. He identifies two critical and interrelated forces at play: a willingness to self-sacrifice and an intense sense of unity among followers. These insights are valuable for anyone wondering how to start a social movement.
Force #1: A Willingness to Self-Sacrifice
Hoffer first argues that a willingness to self-sacrifice is essential for the success of mass movements: Self-sacrifice represents a follower’s readiness to put aside personal interests, comfort, and even safety for the sake of a higher cause. Sacrifices within movements may range from relatively minor acts, like dedicating time or money to the cause, to more dramatic ones like sacrificing personal freedom or risking one’s life.
He explains that for followers, sacrifices aren’t seen as a loss but rather as an investment in something far greater—an idealized future or mission that promises redemption and transformation. Hoffer points out that the willingness to sacrifice is rooted in followers’ profound dissatisfaction with their lives, making the potential rewards of sacrifice seem not only worthwhile, but sometimes the only option.
(Shortform note: Research suggests that self-sacrifice is not merely cultural but has deep biological roots. This could explain why individuals in mass movements are willing to endure significant personal costs—they might be instinctively driven to support what they perceive as their “kin” or group with whom they share an ideological similarity. This biological insight adds a layer of depth to Hoffer’s analysis, suggesting that the readiness for self-sacrifice could stem as much from deeply embedded natural behaviors as from psychological or social factors.)
Tactics That Encourage Self-Sacrifice
Hoffer outlines several tactics that mass movements use to cultivate a willingness to self-sacrifice among their followers. He explains how these methods are designed to transform a person’s perception of themselves and the world, making the idea of sacrifice seem not just appealing but necessary to realizing a grander vision.
The first tactic is to shift how people view themselves and their life goals. This encourages them to focus on being part of a group rather than on their individual differences, and to see themselves in a bigger, more important role. This shift helps align their personal goals with the group’s goals. As a result, giving up personal interests for the group’s benefit not only becomes OK, but also something to aspire to.
The next tactic is to break down complex issues into straightforward, compelling beliefs that followers are expected to adopt without question, emphasizing strong loyalty to either the movement’s leaders or its core ideas. This simplification removes uncertainty, casting any sacrifices as clearly noble actions within this redefined “reality.” By fostering a sense of extreme dedication, acts of sacrifice are transformed into demonstrations of devotion, serving both as a means to further the collective goals and as a testament to one’s commitment to the cause.
The final tactic is to reshape, or distort, perceptions of reality. It presents the current state as deeply flawed or unethical while painting an idealized future that can be achieved through the movement. This approach encourages members to see personal sacrifices as essential steps for moving from a troubled present toward a better, imagined future.
| The Role of Social Media in Mass Movements Mass movements can harness social media to encourage self-sacrifice using each of these tactics: First, they use social media to shift how people view themselves and their life goals. Platforms like Facebook and Instagram allow movements to present their cause as morally imperative and heroic. By seeing constant posts and tweets about the movement’s importance, individuals start to align their personal identities with the cause, viewing their participation as essential for a greater good. Second, they leverage social media to break down complex issues into straightforward, compelling beliefs. X (formerly Twitter)’s character limit and the viral nature of memes make it easy to turn intricate problems into catchy slogans or emotional images. Followers can quickly understand and share these simplified messages, spreading the movement’s ideology far and wide without needing to dive into complex discussions. Finally, they reshape or distort perceptions of reality using social media algorithms and echo chambers. Platforms like YouTube and TikTok recommend content that aligns with users’ existing views, creating a loop of information that reinforces the movement’s narrative. This filtered reality makes the movement’s simplified truths seem not just plausible but indisputable, encouraging followers to commit wholeheartedly—even to the point of self-sacrifice. By mastering these tactics, mass movements can significantly expand their influence and deepen their supporters’ dedication. |
Force #2: A Sense of Unity
Equally vital to a willingness to self-sacrifice is a sense of unity among followers. Hoffer writes that this shared collective identity acts as a powerful bonding agent, creating strong communal ties that transcend individual differences. This unity is often forged against a common enemy or societal ill that the movement seeks to combat or eradicate, further intensifying the group’s cohesion. The movement becomes about more than just individual transformation—it evolves into a collective journey toward achieving something monumental that could only be accomplished together.
(Shortform note: While shared identity can strengthen a movement, it can also galvanize opposition, creating a countermovement. When a group defines itself against a common enemy or societal ill, it often inadvertently sharpens the identity and resolve of those who support the status quo or an opposing view. This dynamic can be seen in political landscapes around the world where polarized groups not only strengthen internally but also solidify the bonds and intensify the motivations of their adversaries. Thus, while unity within a movement is crucial for its momentum, leaders should be aware that this same unity might also invigorate their opposition, leading to an escalating cycle of action and reaction.)
Tactics That Encourage a Sense of Unity
Hoffer outlines tactics mass movements use to foster a deep sense of unity among their followers, crucial for the movement’s cohesion and success. These methods provide a shared experience and common purpose that bond individuals together.
The first tactic is to provide a clear enemy. By directing hatred toward a common adversary and fostering suspicion against anyone outside the group, movements not only clarify who the enemy is but also strengthen internal cohesion. This external opposition helps solidify a collective identity by defining what (or who) they stand against.
(Shortform note: Groups often solidify hatred toward a common enemy using dehumanizing language. This approach involves describing others in terms that make them seem less than human. Such language simplifies the narrative, turning complex individuals into one-dimensional villains. This not only makes it easier for members of the group to unite against a perceived threat but also reinforces their sense of belonging by clearly defining “us” and “them.”)
The second tactic is to keep people inspired. Hoffer says that charismatic leaders often become symbols of the movement and therefore a source of inspiration. They do more than just lead; they inspire by embodying the movement’s ideals and stirring followers’ emotions toward shared goals. Their ability to connect on a personal level while projecting confidence in each member’s role entwines individual aspirations with collective ambitions.
| The Rise of Leaderless Movements Hoffer suggests that successful movements often have a charismatic leader; however the 21st century has seen a rise in leaderless protest movements like the 2011 Occupy Wall Street movement and the 2018 gilets jaunes (or “yellow vests”) movement in France. For many of these movements, the lack of a central leader is deliberate. While these leaderless movements are often difficult to repress, they also come with their own challenges. For example, the “yellow vests” protests in France experienced an internal rift when some members of the movement wanted to continue demonstrating while others wanted to throw their weight behind political candidates in the European elections. However, despite these challenges, some of the movements have seen success, like protests that resulted in the reversal of unpopular legislation in Hong Kong or the resignation of politicians in Bolivia. But political sociologists emphasize that when judging the success of social movements, it’s important to remember their purpose—which isn’t to solve the problems that sparked them but to raise the questions that aren’t being addressed. |
The third tactic is to encourage conformity. By encouraging followers to imitate one another in thoughts, appearance, or actions—and engaging them in collective activities like marches or rallies—movements embed strong conformity norms within their ranks. Such unity of purpose reduces internal strife and emphasizes communal over personal identity through shared experiences and objectives.
(Shortform note: Hoffer highlights how movements foster conformity by encouraging followers to mirror each other in various ways. This tactic is strikingly visible in the use of uniforms within military and religious organizations. According to Paul Fussell, author of Uniforms, uniforms not only streamline appearance but also psychologically reinforce a group identity, making individual distinctions less prominent. By wearing the same outfit, members feel part of a collective, which can significantly boost unity and reduce disagreements that might arise from individual differences. This strategy underscores the power of shared visual and behavioral norms to solidify group cohesion and advance collective goals over personal interests.)
The final tactic is punishment. When other tactics are insufficient, mass movements sometimes resort to creating an atmosphere where compliance is not optional. Through coercion, movements ensure strict adherence to their codes, eliminating dissent by making examples out of non-conformists. This enforces discipline but does so through fear rather than consensus.
(Shortform note: In The Dictator’s Handbook, Bruce Bueno de Mesquita and Alastair Smith argue that leaders maintain power through selective incentives, rewarding loyalty and punishing opposition. This aligns closely with the tactics Hoffer describes, where manipulation becomes a tool for enforcing discipline within mass movements. The transition from persuasion to coercion highlights a critical shift: Leaders prioritize their survival over the genuine consensus of the group. By making examples out of non-conformists, they instill fear that suppresses dissent and consolidates their control. This method, while effective for maintaining order, can erode trust and stifle genuine support among members, ultimately affecting the movement’s stability and integrity.)
