Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam: The Rise & Fall of an Alliance

This article is an excerpt from the Shortform book guide to "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" by Malcolm X and Alex Haley. Shortform has the world's best summaries and analyses of books you should be reading.

Like this article? Sign up for a free trial here.

What’s the Nation of Islam? Why did Malcolm X join it, and how did it impact his life?

When he was in prison, Malcolm X embraced the Nation of Islam. It changed his life for the better in many ways, culminating in the beginning of his civil rights career. But, the partnership didn’t last, and Malcolm X eventually went his own way.

Continue reading to learn the history of Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam.

The Nation of Islam Gave Malcolm X a Second Chance in Life

The alliance of Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam began when he was in prison in his early 20s. Some of his family had converted, and they promised they could help him get out of prison if he, too, joined.

The Nation of Islam is a collection of teachings that, at the time, was promoted by its leader Elijah Muhammad. The movement posited that white people are the devil and that they’ve perpetrated evil against Black men by cutting them off from their ancestral cultures and convincing them of white superiority. Malcolm X explains that, according to this belief system, the different races were purposefully created by a scientist named Yacub through eugenic engineering, and the white race was supposed to rule the world for 6,000 years before Black people (who were the original and naturally superior race) would ascend to the top.

(Shortform note: Now considered a hate group, the Nation of Islam’s origins are shrouded in mystery: There’s been much speculation about the race, birthplace, and teachings of founder W.D. Fard, who disappeared in 1934. More is known about Elijah Muhammad; experts say that in Fard’s absence, he stepped up as a stronger leader with even more divisive teachings, including the myth of Yacub. Some scholars say that according to the myth, Yacub deceived Black women in order to create the white race—and that deception was why white people were supposedly inherently evil. Pseudoscientific claims like these have often been used to justify racist beliefs—this is known as scientific racism—though the majority of these beliefs are pro-white.)

Malcolm X explains that he was prepared to accept these teachings as the truth because he knew that the way he had been living was wrong—this seemed a viable alternative. To convert, he first stopped smoking cigarettes and eating pork. He then wrote to Elijah Muhammad, who welcomed him to the religion and told him that he was living proof of white men’s devilish nature—since they deprive Black men like him of opportunities and force them to become criminals to survive. The two began to write to each other frequently, which is how Malcolm X learned more about the religion.

(Shortform note: According to scholars of the Nation of Islam, the organization specifically recruited prisoners after Muhammad was incarcerated for sedition and draft evasion. He believed that prison was a form of oppression, that Black people become criminals because they don’t know they belong to a superior race, and that he could help them realize their true potential and leave crime to the naturally inferior—white people. Prisoners were drawn to the Nation of Islam because it promised a chance at absolution—and provided housing and a job upon release for those who converted.)

Muhammad’s teachings inspired Malcolm X to learn more about Black history and the histories of other people of color in the world, so he hit the prison library—he explains that Ella had gotten him transferred to a prison with better rehabilitative resources. He concluded that white men had used Christianity to oppress people of color around the globe and that Black people have a rich ancestral heritage to be proud of.

(Shortform note: Other experts agree with Malcolm X’s conclusions, noting that colonizers cited Christianity as one of their main justifications for colonizing Africa. They believed that indigenous religions were inferior and that Africans could only become civilized by converting to Christianity. The same justification was used with regard to the colonization of Native Americans and Indians. Colonizers frequently denied the rich cultures and histories of the peoples they colonized—which is why Malcolm X’s discovery of Black people’s rich ancestral heritage was revolutionary for him and why some scholars continue to call for the decolonization of history—that is, the decentralization of white/European perspectives when it comes to world history.)

Invigorated by his new beliefs, Malcolm X started participating in the prison debate club, arguing in favor of Black superiority and proselytizing to receptive Black inmates. For the last year of his sentence, he was transferred back to the first prison he was incarcerated at—he explains that this was because the authorities deemed his outspokenness about his newfound pro-Black beliefs dangerous. However, he continued debating—and with time, his self-confidence grew.

(Shortform note: Just as Malcolm X was deemed dangerous for expressing his pro-Black beliefs, prisons today commonly ban antiracist books—including The Autobiography of Malcolm X—for a similar reason: They feel that the material poses a threat to safety and stability within the prison system.)

Malcolm X notes that he was paroled in 1952, having served six years of his sentence, and began living with his family in Detroit. He joined the Nation of Islam’s temple there and was inspired by the local Black Muslim community’s high moral standards—standards which he felt kept them out of trouble and poverty, while non-Muslim Black people in America continued to languish. He also changed his last name from Little to X—a common practice in the Nation of Islam that signified the true ancestral surnames that had been stolen from Black people when they were enslaved.

(Shortform note: The Nation of Islam’s presence in Detroit has had far-reaching effects: For example, some experts believe that the group’s presence paved the way for Muslim immigrants to later settle in Detroit, contributing to the city’s high religious diversity in the present day. Also, the Nation of Islam wasn’t the first or only collective of Black people to change their last names as a reflection of their newfound freedom: The practice can be traced back to the end of slavery, when freed slaves finally had the opportunity to choose their own names, rather than simply being called what their enslavers wanted them to be called.)

Eventually, Malcolm X traveled to Chicago to meet Elijah Muhammad and, under Muhammad’s guidance, set to work recruiting new members and building the religion. He tripled temple membership in Detroit within a few months and went on to establish new temples in Boston, Philadelphia, Springfield, and Atlanta. Because of Malcolm X’s success, Muhammad named him head minister of Temple Seven in New York City.

(Shortform note: Experts have concluded that Malcolm X was personally responsible for the Nation of Islam’s gains in popularity. The organization grew under Muhammad, but it lost steam after Muhammad was imprisoned for telling followers to dodge the draft during World War II. Recruitment didn’t pick back up again until Malcolm X began working on the organization’s behalf. Experts have pointed to his strong leadership skills, like an aptitude for public speaking, to explain Malcolm X’s monumental success in building the Nation of Islam.)

At Temple Seven, Malcolm X met Betty, the woman who would become his wife. Although he didn’t want to be married because he felt that women were weak, troublesome, and in need of being controlled, he explains that he was inspired by Betty’s devotion to the religion and came to believe they were a good match.

(Shortform note: Malcolm X has been criticized by many prominent Black feminists as having misogynistic beliefs and directly contributing to the development of sexism within the Black Power movement. However, these beliefs seem to have evolved over time; Malcolm X was inspired by the strength and intellectual contributions of Black women he knew in his personal life and through his work, including his sister Ella and activists like Maya Angelou. After his death, his wife Betty shouldered a heavy load: She carried on Malcolm X’s civil rights work, completed a Ph.D. and pursued her own career, and was a single mother to their six children. She died in 1997, as a result of burns sustained in a fire caused by one of her grandchildren.)

The Nation of Islam Transformed Malcolm X’s Politics

Converting to the Nation of Islam didn’t just change the quality of Malcolm X’s life—it also radically transformed his politics, which led to his involvement in the civil rights movement.

Malcolm X was critical of the American civil rights movement and its more moderate leaders. He was in favor of a more radical approach to Black liberation, and he believed that the Nation of Islam should participate in civil rights action in order to prove the efficacy of radicalism.

One part of this radical approach was Black separatism—Malcolm X believed that the races should be kept economically and culturally separated. Another part of this radical approach was self-defense against racism, by way of violence if necessary. Male members of the Nation of Islam were enrolled in a program called the Fruit of Islam—the Nation of Islam’s security division—where they’d be trained in self-defense tactics like judo.

Malcolm X explains that he got his start in civil rights work when he led a resistance movement against police brutality. A Black Muslim man named Johnson Hinton had been attacked by New York police and taken into police custody. Accompanied by many members of the Fruit of Islam, Malcolm X demanded that Hinton be released for medical care. Hinton was finally taken to the hospital by ambulance, and the Black Muslims followed—and were joined by other Black people who were incensed by police brutality and excited by the possibility of organizing against it. Hinton had to have a steel plate put in his skull and sued the city, winning over $70,000—the debacle got a lot of publicity, making the Nation of Islam a household topic.

In 1959, a documentary about the Nation of Islam called The Hate That Hate Produced aired, broadcasting the organization’s radical views to the national stage for the first time—this catapulted Malcolm X to widespread recognition. He began visiting colleges as a much sought-after guest speaker; he also engaged in TV and radio debates to explain why Black separatism was necessary and to fight against accusations that he was inciting violence—in his view, he simply advocated resisting oppression. Because of the increased media attention, the Nation of Islam got more popular—and began to be surveilled by the government.

Malcolm X used his leadership skills to recruit more converts with the aim of uplifting Black people and uniting them against racism. He explains that initially, many converts to the religion were people who struggled with addiction. The Nation of Islam forbade all drug use, so, when someone wanted to convert, they had to give up drugs—a difficult but health-promoting process. Once they had, they’d seek out drug addicts they’d known in their former lives and help them through the process of getting sober. As the organization grew, it began to recruit traditionally successful Black people, including Christians. The Nation of Islam was successful because it gave Black people a supportive community and proactively helped them through their struggles.

Malcolm X’s Break From the Nation of Islam

Although the Nation of Islam helped turn Malcolm X into a successful civil rights activist, problems were brewing within the organization that he couldn’t abide by.

Malcolm X gained prominence that other Nation of Islam leaders didn’t—and he explains that, eventually, Elijah Muhammad became jealous of him. He made Malcolm X the first National Minister of the organization and praised him to his face; all the while, he told others Malcolm X was untrustworthy and that he’d betray the Nation of Islam. But Malcolm X came to know that Muhammad was the untrustworthy one.

Their relationship would end only after President John F. Kennedy was killed. Muhammad told ministers not to comment on it—but Malcolm X did anyway, arguing that the assassination was a punishment for JFK’s wrongdoing. For his disobedience, Muhammad sentenced Malcolm X to 90 days of silence and alerted the news to the punishment. That made Malcolm X suspicious of him—and eventually, it became clear to him that Muhammad wanted him dead.

Muhammad did indeed want Malcolm X dead—he assigned someone to kill him, but that person respected Malcolm X and told him about the plan instead. At that point, Malcolm X knew he had to give up on the Nation of Islam—but he wasn’t willing to give up on civil rights activism. He created his own organization called Muslim Mosque, Inc. (MMI), which he hoped would embrace Black people of all religions and lift them out of their plight. He notes that many members of the Nation of Islam left to join his organization.

Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam: The Rise & Fall of an Alliance